Child Pornography an Epidemic Essay

The internet can be a useful tool when used for the right reasons, but what about the wrong reasons, such as child pornography? Child pornography is growing in astounding numbers, it is gaining more popularity every year and there is still not enough legislation to help slow it down. Society has become overly sexually stimulated, simple sexual pleasures are now not enough in many people’s minds, which may lead to harmful, unhealthy sexual desires. Sexual abuse of minors has become a huge social problem in the world today. For a philosopher such as Plato was it normal to live this way? What was and is now considered to be a normal way of living? Pornography comes in different forms such as pictures, film or writing which stimulates sexual arousal. Child pornography is the deliberate abuse of a minor, it not only destroys Childs self-esteem but it later becomes an issue for society to deal with as well. Children are forced to endure both physical and mental harm. A young mind does not have the capability of understanding that what is happening to them is wrong. The young victims are usually lured into watching explicit materials first by the pedophile, in which it is made to seem as though these acts are acceptable and that â€Å"everyone is doing it†. According to Enough. org, Child pornography is one of the fastest growing industries online, it has become a 3 billion dollar industry. Many of the victims blame themselves for what has happened to them because they â€Å"allowed† the abuse to happen or continue. Many of these children suffer from depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, emotional numbing and have trouble sleeping or concentrating. Most pedophiles begin by watching soft porn, and then the addiction escalates which leads them to watch more intense explicit materials. Later, these more hardcore images or film may not satisfy the addiction, this is when they turn there fantasy world into reality becoming sexual predators. As seen by millions on an NBC show called â€Å"How to Catch a Predator† hosted by Chris Hansen, many of these men had no issues meeting an under aged girl or boy for sexual satisfaction. These men ranged from your everyday white collar worker to a Rabbi, Priest, teacher, doctor or even a father who brought his young son along. Perversion in these individuals can be so intense that these are the lengths some of these predators will go to. Who can we trust anymore when most of these individuals are off the radar, meaning they haven’t been caught yet? It’s no wonder so many of our children are more sheltered than ever. When I was growing up rain, snow or sun shine my friends and I were outside playing. Today most of our children are behind a television/ computer screen most of the time. I feel parents should be more vigilant when leaving there child with certain individuals, including child care providers, coaches, even your best friends extended family. People need to rely on their instincts more than ever. According to an article on businessinder. com there are 116,000 searches for child pornography every day. The porn industry as a whole earns $3,000 per second! Americans Account for over half of the world’s porn revenue. I feel that for most of these sexuak predators there is not much that can be done at this time. The two main options available are either jail time or some a form of counseling. I do not believe these sexual desires could ever disappear completely. There is a big difference when taking into account alcohol/drug abuse versus child pornography addiction. An addict can be rehabilitated and in many cases they replace there drug or alcohol addiction with other addictions, usually positive outlets, but how the mental state of a sexual predator could possibly change is a question that is still goes unanswered. If it were possible to rehabilitate a pedophile what would their outlet later be? As further demonstrated by a quote from mentalhealthamerica. net- â€Å"Mental health professionals have difficulty determining which sex offenders are likely to be dangerous if not committed and what if any treatment should be provided. This means that courts, which must rely on professional expertise, will regularly make mistakes in deciding who should be committed or released, with serious consequences for both the public and the offender†. Many pedophiles are classified as having â€Å"Antisocial† personality disorder, because of the taboo nature of this addiction it is no wonder they often isolate themselves. Being that the system has no set way of dealing with these individuals it is difficult to understand what the possible outcome of any type of treatment could be. Enough. org states there are approximately 650,000 registered sex offenders in the United States alone. Of course, not every country agrees that marrying an under aged person is a crime or taboo. We could look at polygamy in the world for example. This is a normal practice for many Muslim and Islamic communities. Many of the leaders in these communities marry young girls and many of them are asked to bear their children at a young age because this is when they are the most fertile. For outsiders this type of behavior is very taboo but for the polygamist community it is very common. The same could be said for cults and tribes around the world, many of the young girls in cults are told that relationships with their spiritual leader will bring them closer to God or whomever they believe in. On the other hand, Plato believed people are evil because of ignorance. Plato held the same belief as Socrates that no one knowingly does what he knows to be bad for his soul. Plato uses the term â€Å"just† when speaking about the highest form of life possible. In the city, the shape of a just or good life is one that is specialized. According to Plato, no one but philosophers can achieve a truly good life, because they alone are born with the capacity to recognize the good. He states, â€Å"The pleasure pertaining to the sight of what is cannot be tasted by anyone except the philosopher† (Rep. 82c5). Though, in the Republic, it seems that Plato is trying to give hope to his readers and inspire them to attain what is good and just in their own lives. To him, human limitations can be overcome through instruction. Could this instruction also help the pedophile on his road to reform? I wouldn’t say that individuals with anti-social personality disorder â€Å"live in the dark† per se, I believe the fear of persecution by the public leads them to live in the shadows. The problem is that many of these individuals are educated and very well regarded in their communities. They live among us and are able to function in society as normal citizens of society most of the time, and it is usually behind closed doors where there double life emerges. When thinking of Plato it was evident that he was a homosexual, he was attracted to both men and young boys, therefore I am not sure that he would have much of an issue with the behavior of today’s pedophiles. It seems to have been normal practice in Greece to have relations with young boys, ranging from the ages of 12-17 years of age. Men taught the young boys rules of adulthood, the young boys played the passive role while the older men played the masculine role in the relationship. I do realize that times were much different back then, as knowledgeable as these philosophers where, when thinking about present day, it is very obvious much was left to be learned as far as proper relationships and age limitations are concerned. The concern I had about some of the behaviors towards young men and or women are whether or not these youths had a say in their involvement in these relationships. Where they forced into some of them or did they willingly participate? Did the parents freely give up their children or did they not have a say? Being that I am from today’s generation and society I cannot fathom allowing my 12 year old son to commit to a relationship with another grown man. Did they not believe they were harming these young people? It seems as though they experienced no guilt but only pleasure and satisfaction when gaining a relationship with a young boy. Because the boy’s role was passive submissive, I feel there was a sense of low self-worth associated with that. What did these men do when the boys grew hair on their chests and beards on their faces? Did they simply get rid of them or did they continue the relationship? In some cases I would think they held on to the ones they truly cared for, whatever that meant. What then came of the boys who became adults? Did they also continue the cycle of having relations with young boys? If these boys did not have sexual desires for men, but were constantly being wooed by these prestigious older men then it is obvious that they sometimes gave in to these relationships unwillingly. Much like todays pedophiles it seems as though the boys were lured with promises of a secure and happy friendship/relationship. As with today’s predators they also took their time getting to know the victim before initiating sexual relations. Though intercrural sex was widely practiced, meaning penetration of the penis between the thighs was used very often back then, I still feel the children felt huge sense of belittlement. Therefore in regard to Plato’s idea of a good life, I in contrast believe the good life consists of being happy whether you are educated or not, rich or poor. I grew up poor, my father quit school after the eighth grade, and despite this we had a happy home life. I do feel receiving a traditional education is very helpful, but in some cases it is not necessary. It is human nature to continuously learn new things throughout our lifetime. As we grow older we become so much more knowledgeable about everything around us. I think experiencing things first hand speaks volumes about ones level of maturity. I feel the way we should live to attain happiness is to never have limitations, we should always have the option to keep learning be it through instruction or self-learning. Life should never be left a standstill, people should never feel sorry for themselves or hopeless. If someone wants to be happy and not feel jealous of the way their neighbor is able to live then something can always be done about it. If someone feels unworthy or depressed they can seek out counseling. I do believe that what is good for me is not necessarily what is good for someone else. Culture and personal upbringing obviously have a lot to do with how individuals behave within society. I completely agree with Socrates statement, that the unexamined life is not worth living. Both Socrates and Plato believed that seeking wisdom through examination of life transformed ones soul. By making that choice we moved towards a good life. Lastly, we have yet to learn what a goes through a pedophiles mind and why it is that they can have sexual desires for under aged kids. Though a sad, isolated life for today’s sexual predators, the same could not be said for the days of Plato and the workings of the world back then. I myself feel immense joy and happiness by helping others, not by causing sorrow and pain that is felt by the unfortunate victims involved in these horrific acts. The psychological world has yet to learn the true cause or therapy that will help these individuals, we can only be hopeful that much needed changes come in the near future.

Leadership Style Essay

Leadership is a role that not all can partake but that many have excelled at. When asked who I admire as a leader I had to think quite a while. I had to decide what category of leader I could relate to the most. Would it be a political leader, a spiritual leader, a business leader or even a military leader? Ultimately I decided that I want someone who is multi-faceted in that they can lead in many situations and scenarios. Further it seems that leading in unfamiliar and new situations can allow a leader more freedom in his direction without being swayed by observations of others in similar situations. This led me to choose George Washington as my admirable leader since â€Å"George Washington can be used as an example of strong and ethical leadership in virtually any walk of life.† (Rees 2007, p. preface) Growing up we all learned of George Washington and his role as the first president of the United Sates. We hear of his honesty as told through the story of the cherry tree an d so on. His leadership is what gave him this large mark in our history books and it was not only displayed through his presidency. He was first a great military leader. In this role he displayed leader characteristics such as toughness, persistence, bravery and organization. These characteristics earned him the respect of his troops and the ongoing admiration of an entire country. His time as a political leader is what he is remembered most for. He was able to use his charismatic presence and moral strength to maneuver through a turbulent political environment. The leadership traits of foresight and strategic planning allowed him to hold at bay the continental army from a brittle and new civilian government. Through his, and with the help of other great leaders, efforts the path was paved for the United Sates to become the world’s leading super power. Though other leaders have achieved similar feats throughout history this one stands out for me as I have directly benefited from George Washington’s leadership.  Lastly a notable leadership trait that I admire of George Washington’s is his moral leadership. This helps distinguish him from other leaders of world powers before and after his time. It was not uncommon for leaders like Hitler, Stalin, and the Caesar’s or Persian Empire leaders who accomplished similar â€Å"world power† feats to rule by an iron fist and without morality to reach their goals. George Washington used his moral compass to create what may be a much longer lasting arena in which to lead, one that could be passed on to other worthy leaders. Many would like to think that they have the characteristics of a great leader. The reality is that if I, or anyone else, had the perfect mesh of traits for a leader then we would in fact be leading. While I do manage staff, departments and facilities I see myself as a professional and only an aspiring leader. It is my hope that through this course and the others I with be involved in throughout my time at University of Phoenix I will come closer to actually leading. Currently I have some leadership characteristics. There are some that seemed to come naturally and others that have taken time, effort and education. I’ve always seemed to have a knack at argument, or for our scholarly purposes, excellent persuasion ability. I can think clearly during exchanges and use opposing thinkers own examples and analogies to further substantiate my position. I treat people with respect regardless of their status. I strive to have a perfect balance on confidence and humility. I do not fear collaboration and tend to communicate well. If I were to list all the things I would need to do in order to become a better leader this paper would never end. In order to avoid this I will talk only about the traits I feel are the most important and in need of further understanding and practice from myself. Leveraging team strength’s needs some attention from me. I tend to look at people in their roles and corner them there. If I open my eyes a bit more as to their aptitude in other areas I could find that shining stars are sitting right in front of me. I need to be more fearless and take more risks. I have a tendency to play things safe seeking acceptable outcomes when I could take risks and seek excellent outcomes. If I were to take on a little more compassion for things going on with the people around me I may be able to find ways to create more dedicated followers. Followers that know I believe in them and care for their own well-being as opposed to simply the desired outcome of my leadership. Ultimately I wish to lead by example. I want to  lead follower’s development and act as a resource for their advice and assistance (Daft 2008). The greatest satisfaction I can achieve as a leader would be not only for my own desired success in life to be experienced but also to carve a path for those around me to thrive as well. Good leadership in my opinion will always result in an accumulative good, not and individual good. References Daft, R. (2008). The Leadership Experience. Mason: Thompson Learning, Inc. . James Rees, Stephen J. Spignesi (2007). George Washington’s Leadership Lessons. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Financial Management Individual Work Week 1 Coursework

Financial Management Individual Work Week 1 - Coursework Example Thus, Repo Mens returns are expected to move counter to the economy (Brigham & Ehrhardt, 2013). The risk of 2–stock portfolio is 3.3% while the stand-alone risk of Altas Inds. is 18.8% and Repo men is 13.4%. This is because of diversification of stock , which implies that most of the risk contained in the stock was unique to such companies. Portfolio effect should affect the way investors think of individual stock because the risk of individual stocks contain both market and diversifiable risk. In a well-diversified portfolio, there is elimination of diversifiable risks leading to risk reduction of the overall portfolio (Hampton, 2011). (2.) If you decided to hold a 1-stock portfolio and consequently were exposed to more risk than diversified investors, could you expect to be compensated for all of your risk; that is, could you earn a risk premium on that part of your risk that you could have eliminated by diversifying? Answer: See Ch 02 Mini Case Show Beta is the market risk. Beta of more than 1 such as that of Alta has higher returns. Repo Men has the lowest beta, which is negative, thus the lower returns than T-bill that are risk free and has zero beta. T-bill has no risk and thus has a beta of zero (Hampton,

Strategic Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Strategic Management - Assignment Example king from both internal and external influences, explains strategies used by Davies in launching this new line, and proposes recommendations about whether this new launch can provide a return on the investment. The PEST Analysis, as part of environmental scanning, provides an opportunity to witness the different external conditions that influence decision-making. This model recognises political, economic, social and technological forces that will determine a firm’s adaptability to external trends. From the political view, Davies’ new business intends to launch 25 stores. Success domestically will determine whether to take this brand international and strategy could be impacted by different taxation or tariffs on imported products, cutting into the profit margin. Depending on the country where Davies might export his goods, political forces can determine speed of new market entry or regulate volume being delivered. The economic environment plays a considerable role in how a business develops strategy. Where this new line will be introduced, the UK, there is a current recession that impacts consumers at all different levels and market segments. In response to consumers slowing their purchases, especially in retail, high-end companies like Versace have stopped production on five different product lines in lower-priced ranges since they were not showing signs of profitability (Choi, 2009). Further, Tiffany closed its business focusing on Iridesse pearl jewelry to focus on diamonds due to sales slumps (Choi). This illustrates how the economic environment drives companies to streamline their product lines or enhance their sales focus on higher-profiting products. Spending patterns in consumer groups can strongly impact strategic direction, especially at the operational level like at Versace. Social trends, also external, impact how a company conducts business in a certain environment. A recent survey of citizens in Asia identified that Asians tend to worry about

Consequences of Divorce for Children Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Consequences of Divorce for Children - Essay Example Without touch, even physiological systems will not function properly since the human skin is the first to develop and is the largest and the neediest sense organ (Linn et al., 1997: 29). Children in divorce-wreaked abodes generally lack parental touch due to the distress that the hurt and separation caused both parents, who need time alone and go through a process of grief, especially for one party who felt cheated. Studies of adolescents found a positive correlation between drug abuse and home environments with having little or no touch (Huttmann, 1993:168). Similarly, amidst the fact that a mother's care is critical during infancy, infants need touch and care from their fathers too, and little or lack of it will result to "abnormal" bonding behavior, such as the high amount of incestuous behavior among stepfathers who never had the chance to bond with their stepdaughters as infants (Hamilton,1985: 10). Studies show that when fathers interact with their infants, those infants thrive and grow up securely surrounded by the love of two parents rather than just one. The rate of development of children who frequently stayed with their fathers rather than just their mothers is found to be high (ibid). On the contrary, infants who are seldom touched tend to develop slower and are passive (Linn, et al., 1997: 30). Hence, it is apparent that in homes where the parents decide for divorce, the child is usually deprived of the needed frequent touch from each parent, and since legal laws provide the custody of children to the mother, it is often the father's touch that is missed. Based on this discussion, when the most striking impact of divorce happens at the time when the child is in infancy stage, the parents' lack of attention due to the grief that divorce had caused results in slow physical, social, and even mental development for the child (ibid). Erikson describes children in their early childhood as experiencing a conflict between autonomy vs. shame and doubt. Autonomy develops as the child tries to develop his own will and tries to get what he wants, while shame and doubt are the result if the child chooses his own will and consequently disappoints his mother (Cordes, 1985: 33). However, Erikson clarifies that when the child chooses his own will, he does not disconnect from his mother but rather seeks a separate sense of self in order to relate to her in new ways (Stern, 1985: 10). It may be inferred that children at this stage are learning many things; thus, they become their own person. They are learning how to talk, walk, and go where they want. Piaget posits that children in this stage can understand that divorce is something bad, that somebody must be responsible for this, and the concept of guilt does not enter their minds (Jensen and Mckee, 2003). Hence, during this stage, divorce is not related to guilt. Children m ake judgments from their own viewpoints and cannot easily imagine that there are other judgments other than their own (ibid). Erikson posits that it is important that at this stage of the child, parents are firm but loving so that the child will not grow into a little Hitler if they are too permissive, or will not be deeply hurt if they always say no to everything he wants. If children do not sense that they have a will, then anything

What movie and answer questions and your personal reactions Review

What and answer questions and your personal reactions - Movie Review Example The similarities in all the children is the undying love that they receive from their parents and the parents’ desire to raise healthy and happy children. All these children live in an environment where raising children is focused on making sure that they get enough sleep, that they get enough amount of food to eat, and that they fit in with the older siblings. In all the scenarios, it is clear that babies learn from their surrounding environment. They learn from what they see, for example, a baby seeing people eating from one communal pot or seeing people slaughtering a goat from the dirt gets to learn how life works in his surroundings. In all the scenarios mothers are seen to be primarily in charge of child care. For example, the documentary shows the US mother busy in the kitchen and the Mongolian mother milking. The documentary also shows the mothers engage more with their offsprings while doing something else. When looking at the four children, they are raised in very different social-cultural environment where in the case of Ponijao, he is raised in a dirsty village. His family lives in log hut that has clay roofs. They do not have any carpets of any form of barrier between bare bottoms and the dirt. He lives in an environment where people sit on the ground. The culture in this community is where women have the primary role of taking care of the children and doing the daily chores of the homes. The women tie their babies on the side or on their back as they do their work. Men do not play a big role in rearing children on a day to day basis as it is seen in this documentary. Older children are the once who take the responsibilities of acting like the role models and teach them on how they can fit in the society. This is clearly seen in the opening scene of the documentary where an older Ponijao is seen seated next to an infant grinding rocks on a

Personal Effectiveness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Personal Effectiveness - Essay Example There are hundreds of skills that you developed over time, but it is even more challenging to combine which tasks you are good at and which ones you enjoy the most. The reconciliation of both will determine your strengths. I am trying to identify my weaknesses and strengths all the time in order to make the most of my career opportunities. Besides, I realize that it is easier to focus and develop your strengths than trying to eliminate weaknesses. Every time I try to engage into a new activity, I am always naturally worried that I won't have the necessary skills for a new activity or responsibility. However, after I sat down and gave a thought about the type of role that I would like to fulfill, it became easier for me to look at the skills that I already have in abundance that will be suitable for that or another activity, responsibility. I have made a whole list of the things that I am excellent or good at, then a list of things that I am not good at or do not enjoy doing them. The list of strengths and skills helps me to identify what else I can work on and I have also developed an excel matrix and time schedule of things that I would like to work on and monitor my performance. ... I have developed a matrix in Excel, which will help me to structure my developments over time and keep on track my progress. COMMUNICATION Communication is an essential part of any activity, whether it involves working with other colleagues or with customers or clients, communicating with professors, negotiating with peers, etc. It is also one of the most easily identifiable transferable skills. After I have looked on how I communicate within my existing role, it's easy to see that I need to work on a more professional style of communication that will suit work environment better. WORKING IN A TEAM Teamwork is another easily identifiable skill. Being able to work with others is an asset in any role. During the last year I have been working 5 times in a team. In two case I have been leading the team of 6 people during the business game and during one we won the first prize, which is an example of a successful team player. However, my team role tends to have a slight hint of dictatorship, which I will work on and will try to develop more collaborative approach to team negotiation ship. In my opinion, being able to choose the role within a team is an excellent asset, as in a now day's society almost in every job I will have to work in a team and it is essential to be not only leading but also submissive. Level 4 Level 3 Level 2 Level 1 - Identifies strengths & development areas for members improvement - Provides development and training opportunities to others to improve performance - Gives subordinates advice and coaching to improve their technical skills - Gives honest and constructive feedback to team members to aid their development - Designs and delivers skills training in a variety of areas - Provides constructive feedback

Gender inequality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Gender inequality - Essay Example Western feminists, such as Rich argues that rape and violence against women are central to the control of women and their bodies, especially when the advancement of women in the public sphere is de-stabilizing this power base: Patriarchy is' a familial-social, ideological, political system in which men - by force, direct pressure or through ritual, law and language, customs, etiquette, education, and division of labour, determine what part women shall or shall not play, and in which the female is everywhere subsumed under the male. It does not necessarily imply that no woman has power, or all women in a given culture may not have certain powers.3 People ... whose lives cut unfamiliar paths across the distinctions of rule suggest still other structures of feeling in formation, other sites of power to identify, a wider range of sources to consider, and, not least, other kinds of memories to call on and stories to tell.4 When considering other theories of power, especially in relation to sexuality and race depends upon violence and control over the body, which is an indicator that there is inherent discrimination in the legal, social and political system. However, there is a lot of similarities in Western and Eastern cultures in respect to control and power over women's bodies. Carla Rice states that [w]henever we as women look at ourselves through the lens of culture, we' end up engaged in a war with our bodies, one that we cannot win. Society has inhibited our bodies and we have absorbed into our skin and bones (1999, 317) Stoler introduces an interesting connection between women's bodies and culture; however the modern restraints on women and the body are not new, i.e. history has restrained the body in differing ways. The modern era has heralded freedom in the sense of the mind; however culture has enslaved women using their body again, i.e. the reproductive functions were the prison of the past, superficial beauty is the prison of today. This imprisoning of the mind by using the body is a very old weapon used by the dominating male hierarchical system in fear that women can no longer be so easily controlled. If one considers cultures, such as Asia and the Middle East, being too fat or having a big nose is not a thing of consequence; because women are still imprisoned by their reproductive functions. The male dominated system of the West has been forced to alter cultural images and notions to further dominate women; therefore culture has had to alter by forcing women into a new box, i.e. an underfed , tall, big busted woman. The war waged on women's bodies is first a conflict over shape and size, over the terrain of our bodies, played in a deeply entrenched cultural taboos and a powerful dictate against women taking up space and claiming room of our own.5 This statement of Rice's sums up the conflict between the advancement of women and the restraints constructed by the male dominated culture, which has to adapt to the advancement of women in the late 20th and 21st Century. Rice is correct in her evaluation of the male dominated culture adapting to imprison women from declaring their own rights and space. Foucault6 has provided a discourse that has gone farther than just making women equal to men or races equal, by understanding that

Prison recidivism Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Prison recidivism - Research Paper Example or excitement, wanting to get more than what one presently possess (greed), desire to impose oneself on others (lust) and to apply violent behavior due to anger, disgust, and other strong emotions (rage). The problem arises when people entertain the proliferation of these human urges beyond the laws and rules set by society. In study conducted by Burton and Marshall significantly explained pathways to criminal behavior by citing the research of Moffitt who distinguished and categorized two types of antisocial people: the life-course-persistent individuals who have been identified to be susceptible to persistently manifest in continuous engagement of deviant behavior; and the adolescence-limited, as the term implies, are only involved in criminal behavior in a temporal state, usually during the development stage of adolescence when other skills and behavioral facets are still an ongoing process of growth (Moffitt 674; cited in Burton and Marshall 47). Citing additional researches, Bur ton and Marshall stated that â€Å"entering the criminal justice at an early age generally leads to an increase in future offending† (Burton and Marshall 47). At this point, the research would determine factors that increase the chance of individuals to engage in criminal activities. Factors for Prison Recidivism The results of diverse studies on crime have paved to way for researches to indicate that there are common factors that have been found to increase the tendencies for individuals to engage in antisocial and deviant behavior. Burton and Marshall have enumerated the risk factors, defined as â€Å"factors that increase the risk occurrence of events, such as the onset, frequency, persistence, or duration of offending† (Farrington, Industrial, family and peer factors in the development of... It has been explicitly stated that people who have previously exhibited and manifested criminal behavior have greater tendencies and susceptibilities for relapse, especially for those who fall under the identified profile: those who have committed or have potentials to commit theft and drug offenses;younger individuals; male; and foreigners trying to support and sustain their living in another country. From the given prisoner profile, the identification of factors that increase the propensities for ex-convicts to relapse and engage in future criminal activities require closer evaluation of these resource difficulties and address them to prevent recidivism. By identifying the root causes for criminal behavior, at the onset, community organizations tasked with providing social welfare programs should focus on enhancing support from the family and strengthening family relationships. The identified familial problems should be detected and social workers for spouses and children of prison ers must be oriented to strengthen their bonds through counseling, offering interventions and holistic support; as well as determining ways and means to provide educational and employment support, as required. The research studies cited by Burton and Marshall validated the argument that criminal offenders who entered the criminal justice system at an early age have greater tendencies to relapse (Farrington; Moffitt; McGuire as cited in Burton and Marshall 47).

The Monkeys Paw and The Black Veil Essay Example for Free

The Monkeys Paw and The Black Veil Essay The writers of The Monkeys Paw and The Black Veil engage and sustain the readers interest by using a variety of narrative skills The writer of The Monkeys Paw is skilled at creating atmospheric setting. For example the way he describes the weather and surroundings of the house; The night was cold and wet. Even though they are a few words they are affective words as are these; Hark the wind. They describe the outside world in the way you can imagine it yourself. Another of the writers skills is the convincing characters. I think that the most convincing character is the sergeant. This is because I think you get a more detailed background of him more than anyone else, and a more detailed description. For example; Followed by a tall burley man, beady of followed by a tall burley man, beady of eye and rubicund face. This tells us more about his appearance and this makes you feel that you can relate to him a lot easier than any of the other characters. Another of his skills is the way he creates a sense of evil or mysterious things that have happened in the past. These types of things only crop up now and then in The Monkeys Paw and also in the The Black Veil. In the The Monkeys Paw it is when they find out about the first owner of the paw and how his last wish was for death. To me this indicates that the first two wishes were so drastic that he could not live with himself or the results of the wish and so he wished for his own death. To me this is the major part for things that had happened in the past here is what it says in the text; The first man had three. Yes. Was the reply; I dont know what the first two were, but the third was for death. Thats how I got the paw. Suggestions of evil yet to come are when are when the sergeant warns them that something will happen as a result of making the wish. As you read through the book this passage comes up; Better let it burn. This is said after the sergeant has through the paw on the fire. This suggests that the sergeant knows of the evil which might or will occur once the wishes have been granted and so he does want his friend or his family to be hurt so he attempts to destroy it. This makes the reader want to read on to see if this true. The authors use a skill of making you feel sorry or sympathetic for the different characters most of all Mr and Mrs White; He was the only one left to us. When Mr White says this you cant help but feel sorry for him and his wife, because it makes it sound like there had been more children who had died at a young age. This is also felt when the young man is brought back to his mother in the Black Veil, and we here that the old lady has nobody else left. Overall you can get emotionally involved in the story without noticing it.

Organizational Culture and Climate

Organizational Culture and Climate CHAPTER II CONCEPT OF THE ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR ,CULTURE AND CLIMATE AND ITS IMPACT ON THE ORGANISATION Organizations combine science and people- technology and humanity. Not only technology is difficult to cope by itself, but also adding people to it becomes an immensely complex social system. Within an organization itself, the social system is all the people in it as they relate to each other and to the world outside. The people and the organizations might have some conflict but they live in some degree of mutual interest and harmony. There is a mutual social transaction in which each benefits the other. Individuals use organizations as instruments to achieve their goals just as much organizations use people to reach objectives. There is no idealistic solution to organizational problems; all that can be done is to enhance our understanding and skills so that human relationships at work can be upgraded. Organisations are a universal and pervasive phenomenon manifest in all aspects of human life in different forms. A common thread that runs through all organisations is that they are aggregates of people, and that they have a common purpose. The examination of some definitions will help in appreciating the various facets of organisations. Concept of Organization There are hundreds of definitions of the concept of organization in the management, psychological, and social and sociological literatures and these definitions are being constantly updated and revised. Some of the definitions of organization are as follows: (a) â€Å"Organization is a social group in which the members are differentiated as to their responsibilities for their task of achieving a common goal† (Stogdill 1950). (b) â€Å" Organization is a short hand expression for the integrated aggregation of those persons who are primarily involved in the managing risk and uncertainty- bearing, planning and innovation, co-ordination, administration and control, and routine supervision of an enterprise† ( Harbinson 1959). (c) An organisation is a rational coordination of a number of people for the achievement of some common explicit purpose or goal through a division of labour and function through a hierarchy of authority and responsibility[i] (d) Organisations are human groupings deliberately constructed and reconstructed to meet specific goals[ii] (e) Organisations are physical arrangement of people in various roles for meeting organisational objective.[iii] Common element that runs through these definitions include the fact that organizations involve : (a) Identifiable aggregation of human beings or Individuals banding together to form a group. (b) An organizational goal or the pursuit of a common goal or goals. (c) Coordination of activities with a belief that the group can achieve what an individual cannot. (d) More or less clearly defined responsibilities for its members. (e) Structure or system for coordination. A current concept which leads to better understanding of organisations is to view them as ‘systems existing in the environment. The systems are separate from the environment but their boundaries are permeable, permitting the influence of the environment to act on the system and also enable the outputs of the system to flow into the environment. Every system is composed of a number of sub-systems which interact with and influence each other and also with the larger system, which is their environment. In the services for example, the army is a system with commands as sub-systems. Each of the commands has its own sub-systems such as corps and divisions, forming a hierarchy of systems. Another way of looking at the sub-systems is to classify them by distinct aspects of the functions in organizations for example, human, economic, technical, and so on. Organisations vary in their sensitiveness to the environment. This depends on how open or closed they are to the external influences which impinge on them from the environment However, organisations are neither fully closed nor fully open and the degree of closure/openness determines their characteristics, as described below :- (a) Closed System Organisation[iv]. These are not affected by environmental influences and are designed for the pursuit of clearly specified goals. Organisational arrangements and decisions are geared to goal achievement and are directed towards making the organisation more and more rational and mechanical in the pursuit of its goals. They are characterised by rigid rules, procedures, hierarchical structures and tasks. Such systems are very stable and usually efficient. But, as they are closed from the environment, they have little adaptability and flexibility. Bureaucratic systems are typical closed systems. (b) Open System Organisations. These are systems that consider the environment as a reality. The goals of such organisations emerge as adaptive responses from the influences of the environment. They are not rigid and do not have a strong hierarchical structure. The various parts or sub-systems of the organisation are interdependent; changes in one causing important influences on the other. Such systems are highly adaptive and flexible but are usually low in efficiency. Research and development organisations are usually typical open establishments. Concept of Organizational Behavior Organisational Behavior can be defined as the understanding, prediction and management of human behavior in the organizations.[v] The human behavior in the oraganisation is determined partly by the requirements of the formal organization and partly by the personal system of the individuals forming the organization. The organizational Behavior can also be defined as the field of study that investigates the impact the individuals , groups and the structure have on the behavior in the organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organisations effectiveness. The relationship between the individuals , organization and the working environment is shown below :- Organisational Participants Organisational Behavior Organisational Environment The key elements in organizational behavior are people, structure, technology, and the environment in which the organization operates. When people join together in an organization to accomplish an objective, some kind of structure is required. People also use technology to help get the job done, so there is an interaction of people, structure, and technology. In addition, these elements are influenced by the external environment and they influence it. (a) People. People make up the internal social system of the organization. They consist of individual groups, large groups as well as small ones. They may be unofficial, informal groups or official, formal ones. Groups are dynamic. They form, change, and disband. The Human organizations today are not the same as it was yesterday, or the day before. People are living, thinking, feeling beings that created the organization to achieve their objectives. (b) Structure. Structure defines the official relationships of people in the organizations. Different jobs are required to accomplish all of an organizations activities. The people who perform these jobs have to be related in some structural way so that their work can be effective. These relationships create complex problems of cooperation, negotiations, and decision making. (c) Technology. Technology provides the resources with which people work and it affects the task that they perform. The great benefit of technology is that it allows people to do more and better work, but it also restricts people in various ways. (d) Environment. All organizations operate within an external environment. A single operation does not exist alone. It is part of a larger system that contains many other elements. The environment in which an organization operates influences the attitude of people, affects working conditions, and provides competition for resources and power. Concepts Dealing With an Individual.[vi] There are four concepts dealing with the nature of an individual in the Organizational Behavior :- (a) Individual Differences. Every individual has a different gift of nature, different quantity of intelligence and different way of behavior. When it comes to human behavior there cannot be a prescriptive solution. This concept tells a manager that every person should be treated as an entity and should not be stereotyped just because he belongs to a group. (b) Whole Person. When it comes to analyzing the behavioural problems the manger should take into account all the roles an individual is playing in the organization. (c) Motivation. The manager by his own behavior can influence an employee and can cause him to behave in a particular way. (d) Human Dignity. This concept is more on an ethical philosophy. Every person in an organization wants to be treated with respect and is engaged in the same pursuit. Models of Organisational Behavior[vii]. There are four recognizable models of the organizational behavior. These are tabulated as below :- Autocratic Custodial Supportive Collegial Model Depends Upon Power Economic resources Leadership Partnership Managerial Orientation Authority Money Support Teamwork Employee Orientation Obedience Security Job Performance Responsibility Employee Psychological Result Dependence on Boss Dependence on organisation participation Self discipline Employee Needs Met Subsistence Maintenance Higher order Self actualisation Performance Result minimum Passive cooperation Awakened drives Moderate enthusiasm, Autocratic model was in existence at the time of industrial revolution . subsequently the thinking shifted to the custodial model which consisted of giving some sops, concessions and privileges to the employee to keep them happy. In both the autocratic and the custodial models the managers did not bother creating a conducive atmosphere for the employees. The supportive model emerged as a sequel to the human relations era. This model assumes that the employees have some skill and will contribute to the organization. Thus the manager is not the boss of the team but a leader of the team of employees entrusted under him to perform a particular job. Leader is responsible for creating an environment to utilize the skills and wills of the employees to contribute to the organizational effort. The collegial model is more applicable to the to scientific and professional employees where the role of the manager is changed to a partner in pursuit of the same objective as the employee. Concept of Organizational Culture Organisatinal culture is a pattern of beliefs and expectations shared by the members of the organization. These beliefs and expectations produce norms that powerfully shape the behavior of individuals and groups in the organization. The organizational culture includes[viii] :- (a) Routine behavior when people interact. (b) The norms that are shared by everyone in an organization. (c) The dominant values held by the organization. (d) The philosophy that guides the organizations policies. (e) Climate in an organization. (f) Rules in an organization. Organizational Culture has the potential to enhance the organizational effectiveness , individual satisfaction and the sense of belonging to the organization. However if the organization culture gets out of step with the changing expectation of the stakeholders, the organizations effectiveness can be hindered. A strong culture facilitates goal alignment. As all employees have same basic values, therefore they agree on not only the goals but also the methods of achieving them too. Thus the energies of the employees is channeled in the same direction and the organization performance is better. A strong culture leads to high levels of employee motivation because a strong culture automatically attracts the people towards the organization. A strong culture also enables an organization to learn from its past. The strong culture reinforces the consensus on the interpretation of issues and events based on the past experiences, provides precedents from the organizations history which help in deciding course of action to meet the new challenges. Organisational culture exists on different levels that differ in terms of visibility and the resistance to change[ix]. The least visible or the deepest level is the basic shared assumptions which represent the beliefs about the organisation that needs to be run. The next level of culture is the cultural values which represent the collective beliefs, assumptions and feelings about what things are good , normal , rational , valuable and so on. These values tend to persist over time when the organisational membership changes. The next level is that of the shared behaviors , including norms which are more visible and somewhat easier to change than the values. The most superficial level of oragnisational culture consists of the symbols. Culture symbols are the words , gestures and pictures or other physical objects that carry particular meaning to the culture. Concept of Organizational Climate The concept of organisational climate is derived from the atmospheric climate. Just as two places can be differentiated with reference to elements of atmospheric climate like temperature, humidity, etc, organisations also can be differentiated on the basis of organisation climate prevailing in them. There is evidence to show that there is a very close relationship between organizational climate, job satisfaction, performance of individuals and ultimately organisational effectiveness. Organisation Climate[x] is a set of distinctive features that distinguish one organisation from another and influence the behavior of people. It may also be defined as behaviour, shared beliefs, and values that members have in organisation. It often sets the tone for the organisation and establishes implied rules for the way people should behave. In every organisation, there exist certain elements which exert profound influence on the existing climate. These are :- (a) Organisational Context . The foremost factor is command/ management philosophy. Reactions of the members of the organisation on the degree to which they accept this philosophy is crucial to a good organisational climate. The climate would be highly favourable, when existing command styles/management techniques are such that members goals match those of the organization. (b) Structure. Nature of relationships, de-alienation of the hierarchy, centralised/decentralised decision making etc affect the climate of an organisation. (c) Process. Some of the vital processes in an oraganisation are communication, decision making and leadership. In all these processes the interface between the superior and the subordinate are visible and cannot be ignored. (c) Physical Environment. The external factors like safety, comfort and decor effect the organisational climate of an organisation. (d) System Value and Norms. Every organisation has discernable and fairly evident formal value system. The formal value system is communicated to the members through rules, regulations and policies. The informal organisations within also exert influence on values and consequently on climate. Role of the Commander. [xi] The most important, is the factor of leadership, especially so in the context of the defence services. Leaders especially the top leadership create the culture for the organisations. In the defence services, since all personnel are subject to the same rules, regulations ,. the commander is the greatest influence factor. He is responsible for creating, developing and sustaining a healthy organisational climate, in keeping with the stage of growth of his unit or formation. By his leadership example and decision making style, a commander can create a healthy organisation climate for his subordinates to function and develop. [i] College of Defence Management Handbook Organisational Effectiveness. CDM Press, 1997,p.9. [ii] Ibid. [iii] Ibid. [iv] Ibid .pp 11-13. [v] Fred Luthans. Organizational Behavior. Irwin-McGraw Hill, 1998,p.16. [vi] A R Sapre. Organisational Behavior. Pune: Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning,2004,pp 16-17. [vii] Ibid. pp 18-19. [viii] Luthans. Op cit. pp 550. [ix] Sapre. Op cit . pp 204. [x] College of Defence Management Handbook. Op cit. pp 35-38. [xi] Ibid . pp 36-39.

History Of Philosophy :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Philosophy is a vast field. It examines and probes many different fields. Virtue, morality, immortality, death, and the difference between the psyche (soul) and the soma (body) are just a few of the many different topics which can be covered under the umbrella of philosophy. Philosophers are supposed to be experts on all these subjects. The have well thought out opinions, and they are very learned people. Among the most revered philosophers of all time was Socrates. Living around the 5th century B.C., Socrates was among the first philosophers who wasn't a sophist, meaning that he never felt that he was wise for he was always in the pursuit of knowledge. Unfortunately, Socrates was put to death late in his life. One of his best students, Plato, however, recorded what had occurred on that last day of Socrates' life. On that last day of his life, Socrates made a quite powerful claim. He claimed that philosophy was merely practice for getting used to death and dying.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At first, the connection between philosophy and death is not clear. However, as we unravel Socrates' argument backing up his claim, the statement makes a lot of sense. In order for Philosophers to examine their world accurately and learn the truth accurately, they must remove them selves of all distractions. These not only include physical distractions, but they include mental distractions and bodily distractions as well. Philosophers must get used to viewing and examining the world with out any senses. Senses merely hinder and obscure the truth. Sight for example can be fooled easily with optical illusions which occur normally in nature. Sound can be very distracting as well when a philosopher is trying to concentrate. All of these cloud the judgement, and must therefore be detached from the soul. Socrates argues that philosophers must view the world around them with their souls in order to accurately learn about it. However, by detaching their souls from all bodily functions, philosophers may as well be in an induced state of death. In mortem, the soul wanders free and there are no bodily hindrances.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Socrates also believed that philosophers look upon death with good cheer and hope. This I find hard to believe because if this were true, the philosopher would not be able to love life, and without the love of life, there is no life to examine and learn about.

Migraines: A Complex Disorder Essay -- Headaches Medical Neurology Pap

Migraines: A Complex Disorder If I can only make it to my bed, I'll be fine. My head hurts terribly. I would do anything to stop the pain. I've taken three extra strength Tylenols and the pain hasn't diminished at all. My head is spinning. Ever so often, the world around me turns dim and then bright. I close my eyes. I need to lie down, but I am driving. I feel nauseous. The pain that started on one side of my head is spreading as it pulsates. I squeeze my head and rub my temples, but the pain remains. I wish for a lobotomy. I wish somebody could stop the pain. I'm home. I run to my room. I tie a rag tightly around my head. It doesn't help. I press my head against a wall. I feel like vomiting again. I know relief is coming soon. I pass out. I am a Migraineur, and have been ever since I can remember. Migraine headaches are a type of vascular headache that affects 28 million Americans, 75 percent of whom are women 1) "http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/pubs/migraineupdate.htm">National Institute of Health, a good source of general information on migraine headaches. Annually, migraines cost the American taxpayers $13 billion in missed work and reduced productivity 1) "http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/pubs/migraineupdate.htm">National Institute of Health, a good source of general information on migraine headaches. Migraines are not a disorder unique to overworked Americans. In fact, the World Health Organization identified migraine among the world's top 20 leading causes of disability name="2">2) "http://www.w-h-a.org/wha/info.asp">World Health Alliance, a source of current articles about migraine headaches. According to the World Health Organization, aside from the physiological exp... ...lth Alliance, a source of current articles about migraine headaches 3) "http://archneur.ama-assn.org/issues/v57n8/ffull/nhn8476.html">Archives of Neurology, provides a historical perspective on topics related to neurology (3) 4) "http://www.achnet.org/understanding/">American Council for Headache Education, provides information on all types of headaches 5) "http://www.wfubmc.edu/neurology/migweb2/introduc.htm#INTRODUCTION">Wake Forest University Baptist Medical Center, lecture notes of a professor at the medical school 6) "http://www.migraines.org/myth/">MAGNUM, a good site for individuals who suffer from migraine headaches 7) "http://www.intelihealth.com/">Intelihealth, a site sponsored by Harvard Medical School 8) "http://www.neurologychannel.com/migraine/">Neurology Channel, provides a comprehensive look at migraine headaches

Education today Essay

Given the increasing information and diversity surrounding education today, teachers and administrators are trying to fill in the task and responsibility to cater to active facilitation and instruction. That is why each one had advocated several strategies and methods that can seek to intensify not only the way content is delivered but also extracting different possibilities. In the end, by constantly seeking to adhere to both standards and needs of students, the educational system can better itself in providing the needed outcomes of 21st century education. In my own perspective, I feel that the effort to reach out and enhance an educational experience is there however, there are certain loopholes and obstacles that continue to impede the process of further application. For example, administrators provide the needed mechanisms for overseeing that the curriculum is in-line with the standards provided. Consequently, the provisions of these standards are often specific only on seeking test scores as the primary measurement in determining student competency. It fails to look into other alternatives that shape and hone student life. Though it is an important process to start with, it does not mean that such idea should only revolve on such. At the same time, the educational sector has been opening up its doors towards diversity as it continues to make its curriculum and content multicultural in understanding. It aligns itself with both the understanding of cultural traditions and conceptualizes on frameworks that will generate results. Despite this, there are still unequal practices that continue to exist among members of the academic community. There is still a gap between the actual frameworks existing with the real thing that is happening. Take into consideration the level of commitment that a professor gives towards people lagging behind in class because of language barriers. In here, it can be observed that there should be a support system that can cultivate better comprehension and understanding of the subject. Such idea may or may not exist in today’s classrooms. Likewise interaction and communication has been integral in student development. It can be seen that the educational sector has shown significant effort in catering to this idea. They had actively involved parents and the community in generating support mechanisms that will further harness the skills and talents of an individual. Though this may seem to be the case, there are still impediments that take place. For example, inclusion may indeed happen in the classroom however this may not necessarily be the case as students reach outside the four walls of the classroom. The environment itself may connote separation and unequal treatment. For students to actively appreciate such idea, both parents and the community have the responsibility of creating an environment that is encompassing and assistive towards growth. Lastly, engagement in extra-curricular activities is another channel wherein each student can rediscover and tap into his/her potential. Many educational institutions advocate that indeed classroom work does not solely determine achievement. Rather, it is the holistic interplay among extra-curricular activities and academic capability. For example, schools and universities can encourage greater participation in volunteer work and clubs engaging in civic activities. Not only can this create and rediscover the passion for reaching out, it can also incorporate and impart the values, principles and mission that the educational institution have to students and the community. To conclude, the educational system has made significant progress towards creating a multicultural education. It has tapped into different issues of concern and sought to create frameworks that will adhere to the needs of students. However, this also brought about new challenges and obstacle that had to be addressed accordingly. By actively realizing the parameters and areas of change, they can be dynamic towards tackling 21st century education.

Summary by Uma Sekaran

CHAPTER I WHAT IS RESEARCH Research: is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situational factors. Business research: systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem encountered in the work setting, that needs a solution. It comprises a series of steps designed and executed, with the goal of finding answers to the issues that are of concern to the manager in the work environment.Business research: organized, systematic, data-based critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it. Yeah, ga usah bingung sama yang namanya mahluk bernama PENELITIAN. Intinya: penelitian itu kan nyelidikin suatu masalah buat nemuin solusinya. Prosesnya ga jauh beda sama usaha kita nyari kebenaran suatu gossip atau cari info tentang orang yang kita gebet. Bedanya: RISET BISNIS ini harus dikerjain secara sistematis, datanya jelas, dan a da dalil-dalil keilmuan yang sudah diakui dan terbukti keabsahannya.Santai†¦ semua orang pasti bisa menaklukan binatang yang bernama PENELITIAN ini; khususnya SKRIPSI (buat mahasiswa S1). Chayo! Pasti bisa! TYPE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH Two different purposes of research: †¢ to solve a current problem faced by the manager in the work setting, demanding a timely solution; (applied research). †¢ to generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved; (basic research). Applied research: research done with the intention of applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems currently being experienced in the organization.Basic/fundamental/pure research: research done chiefly to enhance the understanding of certain problems that commonly occur in organizational settings, and seek methods of solving them. CHAPTER II THE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH The main distinguishing characteristics of scientif ic research: 1. Purposiveness: started the research with a definite aim or purpose, purposive focus 2. Rigor: carefulness, scrupulousness, the degree of exactitude in research investigations. Good theoretical base and a sound methodological design 3.Testability: researcher develops certain hypotheses, then these can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the purpose 4. Replicability: the results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported again and yet again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar circumtances 5. Precision and confidence: †¢ Precision: the closeness of the findings to â€Å"reality† based on a sample. Reflects the degree of accuracy or axactitude of the results on the basis of the sample – to what really exist in the universe †¢ Confidence: the probability that our estimations are correct 6.Objectivity: the conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis ba sed on the facts of the findings derived from actual data and not on our own subjective or emotional values 7. Generalizability: the scope of applicability of the research findings in one organizational setting to other settings. The research sampling design has to be logically developed and a number of other details in the data-collection methods need to be meticulously followed 8. Parsimony: simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problemsthat occur, and in generating solutions for the problems.Introduced with a good understanding of the problem and the important factors that influences it; good conceptual theoretical model The reason for following a scientific method is that the results will be less prone to errors and more confidence can be placed in the findings because of the greater rigor in application of the design details. This also increases the replicability and generalizability of the findings. Makanya, ikutin deh aturan scientific method. Ibaratnya, meneliti juga ada rukunnya; sama kayak sholat. Kalo kita sholat rukunnya berantakan, ga tertib urutan – ga teratur, kan sholatnya jadi ga karuan tu†¦.Ga jelas juntrungannya. Bisa-bisa ga ada artinya or ga ada nilainya. Prinsip â€Å"harus bertindak sesuai rukun† juga berlaku dalam melakukan penelitian. BUILDING BLOCKS OF SCIENCE IN RESEARCH Deduction: the process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known fact. Induction: a process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions. HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD 7 steps in the hypothetico-deductive method: 1. Observation 2. Preliminary information gathering 3. Theory formulation 4. Hypothesizing 5.Further scientific data collection 6. Data analysis 7. Deduction CHAPTER IV RESEARCH PROCESS Research process for basic and applied research: 1. Observation: broad area of research interest identified 2. Preliminary data gathering: interviewing, literature survey 3. Problem def inition: research problem delineated 4. Theoretical framework: variables clearly identified and labeled 5. Generation of hypotheses: 6. Scientific research design: 7. Data collection, analysis, and interpretation: 8. Deduction: hypotheses substantiated? Research question answered?Kalau pada tahap ini hipotesis dan pertanyaan permasalahan belum terjawab, maka kita harus kembali ke proses 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, atau pun 7. Yang sabar ya say†¦( Kalau sudah terjawab, ya lanjut ke tahap selanjutnya; 9. Report writing: 10. Report presentation: 11. Managerial decision making: Yeah, tahap pertama pasti observasi dulu. Gue inget banget, waktu pertama-tama dulu gue bilang mau ngangkat Kampung Betawi buat objek penelitian. Aswin bilang â€Å"gini deh! Kamu observasi dulu tu Kampung Betawi selama seminggu penuh berturut-turut. Kalo perlu, lo ga pulang-pulang, diem aja lo disana.Liatin orang-orang yang dateng, ada apa aja disana, ngapain aja, mereka dateng dari mana, pokoknya perhatiin apa aja yan g terjadi di sana! †. Ga berenti sampe disitu! Gue disuruh wawancara si empunya yang berkuasa di Kampung Betawi itu. Tanya tentang Kampung Betawi, secara implisit tanyain juga masalah apa yang dihadapi sama Kampung Betawi, gali sebanyak-banyaknya informasi; untuk memahami objek penelitian lo. Dan yang ga kalah penting: tanyain mereka punya data-data sesuai kebutuhan lo ga; mereka bisa kasih data itu ke lo ga. Ini penting!Kalo mereka ga bisa kasih data sesuai kebutuhan lo, batalkan niat lo buat ngangkat tu objek. Gue saranin (sangat) lo ganti objek aja. Daripada tar lo repot belakangan, mending antisipasi dari awal khan! Oh, iya: ga ketinggalan, gue juga disuruh cari teori dan penelitian terdahulu yang relevan. Untuk memudahkan gue di masa mendatang. Kalo lo udah observasi dan preliminary data gathering, baru deh lo bisa menemukan masalah utama yang akan lo angkat, secara spesifik, apa†¦ permasalahan yang paling menarik, paling kritis, paling menggelitik, paling sensasiona l, yang paling membuat lo bertanya-tanya geregetan and penasaran!Silakan berkhayal†¦ Abis itu, dengan teori-teori yang lo temukan, lo bikin model deh†¦ Despite the fact that the research model is depicted and discussed in this book as if it were a step-by-step linear process, one has to bear in mind that it is not actually so in practice. For example, though the literature search and interviews might have been conducted before formulating the theoretical framework, one may have to go back and conduct more interviews and/or seek additional information from the literature for a clearer understanding, so as to refine the theory. Gue setuju banget sama pernyataan ini!Soalnya gue juga ngerasain harus balik lagi, balik lagi, balik lagi, sampe gue bener-bener ngedapetin apa yang gue mau. Interview, nemu teori, interview, nemu teori, cari ketersediaan data, AARGGHH!!!! Mo gila! Mungkin ini yang dimaksud aswin â€Å"kalo nanti ternyata penemuan kamu ga cocok, ya kita rombak lagiâ € . Sadis! Sialan. Tapi kita tetap harus sabar†¦ SEMANGAAAAATTT!!!!! Gue jadi inget pertanyaan Hermas: â€Å"kapan kita tau kalo penelitian kita udah bener-bener: BENER †. Dan aswin menjawab dengan sok romantis: â€Å"itu semua tergantung kecintaan kalian terhadap ilmu pengetahuan(†.Makanya, bikin penelitian tentang sesuatu yang benar-benar lo sukai, lo cintai. Jadi di tengah-tengah kegilaan dan kebingungan, masih ada alasan waras kenapa lo masih mau ngelanjutin tu penelitian: â€Å"karna gue suka banget! (selain karna alasan harus ngerjain skripsi supaya bisa lulus dari FE)†. Percaya deh, mengerjakan sesuatu yang lo suka bakal bikin HIDUP lebih HIDUP. OBSERVATION 1. Problems currently existing in an organizational setting that need to be solved 2. Areas that a manager believes need to be improved in the organization 3.A conceptual or theoretical issue that needs to be tightened up for the basic researcher to understand certain phenomena 4. Some research questions that a basic researcher wants to answer empirically PRELIMINARY DATA COLLECTION 1. Background information of the organization –that is, the contextual factors †¢ The origin and history of the company –when it came into being, business it is in, rate of growth, ownership and control, and so on †¢ Size in terms of employees, assets, or both †¢ Charter –purposes and ideology †¢ Location –regional, national, or other †¢ Resources –human and others Interdependent relationships with other institutions and the external environment †¢ Financial position during the previous 5 to 10 years, and relevant financial data 2. Managerial philosophy, company policies, and other structural aspects †¢ Roles and positions in the organization and number of employees at each job level †¢ Extent of specialization †¢ Communication channels †¢ Control systems †¢ Coordination and span of control †¢ Reward systems †¢ Workflow systems and the like 3. Perceptions, attitudes, and behavioral responses of organizational members and client systems (as applicable) †¢ Nature of the work Workflow interdependencies †¢ Superiors in the organization †¢ Participation in decision making †¢ Client systems †¢ Co-workers †¢ Rewards provided by the organization, such as pay raises and fringe benefits †¢ Opportunities for advancement in the organization †¢ Organization’s attitudes toward employees family responsibilities †¢ Company’s involvement with community, civic, and other social groups †¢ Company’s tolerance of employees taking time off from the job LITERATURE SURVEY Good literature survey ensure that: 1. Important variables that are likely to influence the problem situation are not left out of the study 2.A clearer idea emerges as to what variables would be most important to consider (parsimony), why they would be consid ered important, and how they should be investigated to solve the problem. Thus, the literature survey helps the development of the theoretical framework and hypotheses for testing 3. The problem statement can be made with precision and clarity 4. Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research are enhanced 5. One does not run the risk of â€Å"reinventing the wheel† that is, wasting efforts on trying to rediscover something that is already known 6.The problem investigated is perceived by the scientific community as relevant and significant PROBLEM DEFINITION †¢ Narrow down the problem from its original broad base and define the issues of concern more clearly. †¢ It is critical that the focus of further research, or in other words, the problem, be unambiguously identified and defined. †¢ No amount of good research can find solutions to the situation, if the critical issue or the problem to be studied is not clearly pinpointed. †¢ A pro blem does not necessarily mean that something is seriously wrong with a current situation that needs to be rectified immediately. A â€Å"problem† could simply indicate an interest in an issue where finding the right answers might help to improve an existing situation. †¢ It is fruitful to define a problem as any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal states. †¢ â€Å"Is this factor I have identified an antecendent, the real problem, or the consequence? † Problem definition or problem statement: a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution. Could pertain to: 1. Existing business problems where a manager is looking for a solution (applied research) 2.Situations that may not pose any current problems but which the manager feels have scope for improvement (applied research) 3. Areas where some conceptual clarity is needed for better theor y building (basic research) 4. Situations in which a researcher is trying to answer a research question empirically because of interest in the topic (basic research) CHAPTER V NEED FOR THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Theoretical framework: a conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the relationships among the several factors that have been identified as important to the problem. This theory flows logically from documentation of previous research in the problem area. ? Integrating one’s logical beliefs with published research, taking into consideration the boundaries and constraints governing the situation, is pivotal in developing a scientific basis for investigating the research problem. ? Theoretical framework: discusses the interrelationships among the variables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being investigated. From the theoretical framework, then, testable hypotheses can be developed to examine whether the theory formulated i s valid or not. ? The entire research rests on the basis of the theoretical framework. VARIABLES Variable: anything that can take on differing or varying values. 4 main types of variables: 1. Dependent variable (also known as the criterion variable) 2. Independent variable (also known as predictor variable) 3. Moderating variable 4. Intervening variable Dependent variable: †¢ Variable of primary interest to the researcher The researcher’s goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable, or to explain its variability, or predict it †¢ The main variable that lends itself for investigation as a viable factor †¢ It is possible to have more than one dependent variable in a study Pantesan! Mungkin ini yang dimaksud aswin dengan pertanyaan yang selalu dia tujukan ke gue: â€Å"WHAT DO YOU WANT†¦.. tujuan lo apa sih Lo mau apa ha †. Nah, kalo kayak gini gue jadi bingung lagi nih. Jadi dependent variable gue jumlah pengunjung atraksi wisata budaya PBB atau keinginan mengunjungi atraksi wisata budaya PBB Duh jadi bingung mikir lagi deh†¦.Wahai teman, makanya selalu tanyakan dan pastikan â€Å"tujuan akhir apa yang lo mau †. Itulah dependent variable lo†¦ (hmm,,, sepertinya ini ga cuma berlaku buat penelitian deh, tapi dalam kehidupan nyata lo juga! what do you want!!! ) Independent variable: †¢ One that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or negative way †¢ When the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present †¢ With each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also †¢ Variance in the dependent variable is accounted for by the independent variableModerating variable: †¢ One that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship †¢ Whenever the relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable becomes contingent or dependent on another variable, we say that the third variable has a moderating effect on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship †¢ The variable that moderates the relationship is known as the moderating variable Intervening variable One that surfaces between the time the independent variables start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it †¢ There is thus a temporal quality or time dimension to the intervening variable †¢ The intervening variable surfaces as a function of the independent variable(s) operating in any situation, and helps to conceptualize and explain the influence of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ? It becomes evident at this stage that to arrive at good solutions to the roblem, one should correctly identify the problem first, and then the variables that contribute to it. ? After identifying the appropriate variables, the next step is to elabor ate the network of associations among the variables, so that relevant hypotheses can be developed and subsequently tested. ? Based on the results of hypotheses testing (which would indicate whether or not the hypotheses have been supported), the extent to which the problem can be solved would become evident.Theoretical framework: elaborates the relationships among the variables, explains the theory underlying these relations, and describes the nature and direction of the relationships. A good theoretical framework identifies and labels the important variables in the situation that are relevant to the problem identified. Berarti gue bener dong†¦gue ga ngikutin teori dan penelitian lainnya secara plek-plekan sama! Gue pake mereka dengan menyesuaikan diri dengan kondisi kasus gue, si PBB. 5 basic features that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework: 1.The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly identified and labeled in the discussions. 2. The dis cussions should state how two or more variables are related to one another. This should be done for the important relationships that are theorized to exist among the variables. 3. If the nature and direction of the relationships can be theorized on the basis of findings of previous research, then there should be an indication in the discussions as to whether the relationships would be positive or negative. 4. There should be a clear explanation of why we would expect these relationships to exist.This arguments could be drawn from the previous research findings. 5. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the theorized relationship. HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT Hypotheses development: formulating such testable statement Hypotheses: a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement ? To call a relationship â€Å"statistically significant†, we should be confident that 95 times out of 100 the observed relationship will hold true ? Only a 5% chance that the relationship would not be detectedStatement of hypotheses: format †¢ If-then statement †¢ Directional ? The direction of the relationship between the variables (positive/negative) is indicated ? The nature of the difference between two groups on a variable (more than/less than) is postulated †¢ Nondirectional ? Do postulate a relationship or difference, but offer no indication of the direction of these relationships or differences ? It may be conjectured that there would be a significant relationship between two variables, we may not be able to say whether the relationship would be positive or negative ?Formulated either because the relationships or differences have never been previously explored & no basis for indicating the direction, or because there have been conflicting findings in previous research studies on the variables Null and alternate hypotheses â₠¬ ¢ Null hypothesis: a proposition that states a definitive, exact relationship between two variables ? States that the population correlation between two variables is equal to zero or that the difference in the means of two groups in the population is equal to zero (or some definite number) ?Expressed as no (significant) relationship between two variables or no (significant) difference between two groups †¢ Alternate hypotheses: the opposite of the null ? Statement expressing a relationship between two variables or indicating differences between groups †¢ If we reject the null hypothesis, then all permissible alternative hypotheses relating to the particular relationship tested could be supported Example: †¢ Directional (group differences) ? Null hypothesis: H0 :  µM =  µW H0 :  µM –  µW = 0 ? Alternate hypothesis: HA :  µM <  µW HA :  µM >  µW †¢ Nondirectional (group differences) ? Null hypothesis: H0 :  µAM =  µAS H0 :  µAM â€⠀œ  µAS = 0 Alternate hypothesis: H0 :  µAM ?  µAS †¢ Directional (relationship between 2 variables) ? Null hypothesis: H0 : there is no relationship between stress experienced on the job and the job satisfaction of employees H0 : ? = 0 ? Alternate hypothesis: HA : ? < 0 †¢ Nondirectional (relationship between 2 variables) ? Null hypothesis: H0 : ? = 0 ? Alternate hypothesis: HA : ? ? 0 Steps in hypotheses testing: 1. State the null and the alternate hypotheses 2. Choose the appropriate statistical test depending on whether the data collected are parametric or nonparametric 3. Determine the level of significance desired (p=0. 5, or more, or less) 4. See if the output results from computer analysis indicate that the significance level is met. If, as in the case of Pearson correlation analysis in Excel software, the significance level is not indicated in the printout, look up the critical values that defined the regions of acceptance on the appropriate table [(t, F, X2 ) –see tables at the end of the book]. This critical value demarcates the region of rejection from that of acceptance of the null hypotheses. 5. When the resultant value is larger than critical value, the null hypotheses is rejected, and the alternate accepted.If the calculated value is less than the critical value, the null is accepted and the alternate rejected. Hypotheses generation and testing can be done both through deduction and induction: †¢ Deduction: the theoretical model is first developed, testable hypotheses are then formulated, data collected, and then the hypotheses are tested. †¢ Induction: new hypotheses are formulated based on what is known from the data already collected, which are then tested. CHAPTER VI RESEARCH DESIGN †¢ Purpose of the study †¢ Types of investigation †¢ Extent of researcher interference †¢ Study setting Unit of analysis (population to be studied) †¢ Time horizon PURPOSE OF THE STUDY Exploratory study: à ¢â‚¬ ¢ When not much is known about the situation at hand, or no information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past †¢ To better comprehend the nature of the problem since very few studies might have been conducted in that area †¢ When some facts are known, but more information is needed for developing a viable theoretical framework †¢ For obtaining a good graps of the phenomena of interest and advancing knowledge through subsequent theory building and hypotheses testingDescriptive study: †¢ To ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation †¢ The goal: to offer to the researcher a profile or to describe relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest from an individual, organization, industry-oriented, or other perspective †¢ Present data in meaningful form, help to: ? Understand the characteristics of a group in a given situation ? Think systematically about aspects in a given situation ? Offer ideas for further probe and research ? Help make certain simple decisions Hypotheses testing: Explain the nature of certain relationships, or establish the differences among groups or the independence of two or more factors in a situation †¢ To explain the variance in the dependent variable or to predict organizational outcome Case study analysis: †¢ Involve in-depth, contextual analyses of matters relating to similar situations in other organizations †¢ Problem-solving technique †¢ Qualitative in nature, useful in applying solutions to current problems based on past problem-solving experiences †¢ Useful in understanding certain phenomena, and generating further theories for empirical testingTYPE OF INVESTIGATION Causal study: the study in which the researcher wants to delineate the cause of one or more problems Correlational study: when the researcher is interested in delineating the important variables associated with the problem STUDY SETTING Field studies: correlational studies done in organizations Field experiments: studies conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationship using the same natural environment in which employees normally fuctionLab experiments: experiments done to establish cause and effect relationship beyond the possibility of the least doubt require the creation of an artificial, contrived environment in which all the extraneous factors are strictly controlled. Similar subjects are choosen carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli UNIT OF ANALYSIS Unit of analysis: level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data analysis stage. Depend on problem statement focuses. Individual: data gathered from each individual and treating each employee’s response as an individual data sourceDyads: interested in studying two-persons interactions, then several two-persons groups Groups: even though we may gather relevant data from all individuals compr ising, we would aggregate the individual data into group data so as to see the differences among some groups (missal jadi 6 group) Our research question determines the unit of analysis. TIME HORIZON Cross-sectional/one-shot studies: data are gathered just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or moths, in order to answer a research questionLongitudinal studies: data on the dependent variable are gathered at two or more points in time to answer the research question CHAPTER VIII OPERATIONAL DEFINITION Operationalizing the concepts: reduction of abstract concept to render them measurable in a tangible way Operationalizing: defining a concept to render it measurable, is done by looking at the behavioral dimensions, facets, or properties denoted by the concept Operationalizing the concept: ? They would probably have some typical broad characteristics, which we call dimensions. ? Examining each of the dimension and breaking each further into its elements ?These should somehow be o bservable and quantitatively measurable What an operational definition is not: †¢ Does not describe the correlates of the concept †¢ Does not consist of delineating the reasons, antecedents, consequences, or correlates of the concept If we either operationalize the concepts incorrectly or confuse them with other concepts, then we will not have valid measures. This means that we will not have â€Å"good† data, and our research will not be scientific. Yeah†¦kalo kita salah mengoperasionalisasikan suatu variabel, fatal akibatnya.Bisa-bisa kita salah bikin pertanyaan buat diukur nilainya. Jelek deh datanya. (kayaknya gue baru sadar deh kalo gue salah operasionalisasi. Hix. ) Tips agar tidak salah operasionalisasi variabel: ? Bikin landasan teori yang bagus! semua berawal dari landasan teori! ? Selalu temukan definisi yang tepat dari sebuah konsep ataupun variabel. DEFINISI itu kunci yang penting! Kalo kata Lovelock -si professor pemasaran jasa yang kita selalu puny a kunci cinta- : If you can’t define something, you can’t measure it, and what you can’t measure you can’t manage. Punya definisi yang tepat, pasti akan menuntun lo kepada operasionalisasi variabel yang tepat. Ini teori gue, hehe ((((( (berdasarkan pengalaman pribadi). Pantesan, aswin selalu bertanya pada gue: â€Å"ini definisinya apa?! Itu definisinya apa?! †. Hmmmm†¦. pantes†¦aku baru mengerti sekarang†¦. SCALES Scale: a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from one another on the variables of interest to our study 4 basic types of scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio Nominal scale: One that allows researcher to assign subjects to certain categories or groups ?Assigned code number ? These number serve as simple and convenient category labels with no intrinsic value, other than to assign respondents to one of two nonoverlapping or mutually exclusive categories ? Note that the categ ories are also collectively exhaustive ? The information is to calculate the percentage (or frequency) Ordinal scale: not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote differences among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories in some meaningful way ?Helps the researcher to determine the percentage of respondents who consider interaction with others as most important, those who consider using a number of different skills as most important, and so on Interval scale: let us measure the distance between any two points on the scale ? Helps us to compute the means and the standard deviations of the responses on the variables ? Not only groups individuals according to certain categories and taps the order of these groups, it also measures the magnitude of the differences in the preferences among individuals ? The origin, or the starting point, could be any arbitrary number ?More powerful scale than the nominal and ordinal scale, and has for its measure of cen tral tendency the arithmetic mean ? It measures of dispersion are the range, the standard deviation, and the variance Ratio scale: not only measures the magnitude of the differences between points on the scale but also taps the proportions in the differences ? It has an absolute (in contrast to an arbitrary) zero point, which is a meaningful measurement point ? The most powerful of the 4 scales because it has a unique zero origin (not an arbitrary origin) and subsumes all the properties of the other three scalesUse of 4 types of scales: †¢ Nominal scale: for obtaining personal data such as gender or department †¢ Ordinal scale: to rank the preferences or usage of various brands of a product by individuals and to rank order individuals, objects, or events †¢ Interval scale: when responses to various items that measure a variable can be tapped on a five-point (or seven-point or any other number of points) scale, which can thereafter be summated across the items †¢ Ratio scale: when exact numbers on objective (as opposed to subjective) factor are called for CHAPTER IXGOODNESS OF MEASURES Goodness of measures: reasonably sure that the instruments we use in our research do indeed measure the variables they are supposed to, and that they measure them accurately Item analysis: to see if the items in the instrument belong there or not. ? The means between the high-score group and the low-score group are tested to detect significant difference through the t-values ? The items with a high t-value (test which is able to identify the highly discriminating items in the instrument) are then included in the instrumentRELIABILITY Reliability: tests how consistently a measuring instrument measures whatever concept it is measuring †¢ Measure stability and consistency Reliability: †¢ Stability of measures: the ability of a measure to remain the same over time – despite uncontrollable testing conditions or the state of the respondents themselv es ? Test-retest reliability: the reliability coefficient obtained with a repetition of the same measure on a second occasion, the higher the better ?Parallel-form reliability: when responses on two comparable sets of measures tapping the same construct are highly correlated †¢ Internal consistency of measures: the items should â€Å"hang together as a set† and be capable of independently measuring the same concept so that the respondents attach the same overall meaning to each of the items ? Interitem consistency reliability: test of the consistency of respondents answer to all the items in a measure. To the degree that the items are independent measures of the same concept, they will be correlated with one another.Cronbach’s coefficient alpha used for multipoint-scaled items, Kuder-Richardson formulas used for dichotomous items. The higher the coefficients, the better the measuring instrument ? Split-half reliability: reflects the correlations between two halves of an instrument VALIDITY Validity: tests how well an instrument that is developed measures the particular concept it is intended to measure †¢ Whether we measure the right concept Validity: †¢ Content validity: ensures that the measure includes an adequate and representative set of items that tap the concept.A function of how well the dimensions and elements of a concept have been delineated †¢ Criterion-related validity: established when the measure differentiates individuals on a criterion it is expected to predict †¢ Construct validity: testifies to how well the results obtained from the use of the measure fit the theories around which the test is designed ? Correlational analysis: as in the case of establishing concurrent and predictive validity or convergent and discriminant validity ?Factor analysis: a multivariate technique that would confirm the dimensions of the concept that have been operationally defined, as well as indicate which of the items are mo st appropriate for each dimension ? Multitrait: multimethod matrix of correlations derived from measuring concepts by different forms and different methods CHAPTER XI POPULATION, ELEMENT, POPULATION FRAME, SAMPLE, & SUBJECT Population: the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigateElement: a single member of the population Population frame: a listing of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn Sample: a subset of the population, it comprises some members selected from it Subject: a single member of the sample SAMPLING Sampling: the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the population, so that the study of the sample and an understanding of its properties or characteristics would make it possible for us to generalize such properties or characteristics to the population elements ?All conclusions drawn about the sample under study are generalized to the population ? Xbar, S, S2 – ar e used as estimates of the population parameters ? , ? , ? 2 Reason for sampling: †¢ Self-evident †¢ Time, cost, and other human resources considered †¢ Sometimes likely to produce more reliable results Representativeness of samples: †¢ Rarely will the sample be the exact replica of the population from which it is drawn †¢ If we choose the sample in a scientific way, we can be reasonably sure that the sample statistic (e. . ,Xbar, S, S2) is fairly close to the population parameter (i. e. ,? , ? , ? 2) NORMALITY OF DISTRIBUTIONS ? Attributes or characteristics of the population are generally normally distributed ? If we take a sufficiently large number of samples and choose them with care, we will have a sampling distribution of the means that has normality ? This is the reason that the two important issues in sampling are the sample size (n) and the sampling design ?If our sampling design and sample size are right, the sample mean Xbar will be within close r ange of the true population mean (? ) ? The more representative of the population the sample is, the more generalizable are the findings of the research 2 major types of sampling design: 1. Probability sampling †¢ Simple random sampling †¢ Complex probability sampling ? Systematic sampling ? Stratified random sampling ? Proportionate and disproportionate stratified random sampling ? Cluster sampling ? Single-stage and multistage cluster sampling Area sampling ? Double sampling 2. Nonprobability sampling †¢ Convenience sampling †¢ Purposive sampling ? Judgment sampling ? Quota sampling PROBABILITY SAMPLING Probability sampling: when elements in the population have a known chance of being chosen as subjects in the sample Simple random sampling: every element in the population has a known and equal chance of being selected as a subject ? Best: when the generalizability of the findings to the whole population is the main objective of the study Complex probability sam pling: Systematic sampling: drawing every nth element in the population starting with a randomly chosen element between 1 and n ? Best: when the population frame is large, and a listing of the elements is conveniently available at one place †¢ Stratified random sampling: a process stratification or segregation, followed by random selection of subjects from each stratum. The population is first divided into mutually exclusive groups that are relevant, appropriate, and meaningful in the context of the study ?Best: when differentiated information is needed regarding various strata within the population, which are known to differ in their parameters †¢ Proportionate and disproportionate stratified random sampling: †¢ Proportionate: the subjects drawn from each stratum, members represented in the sample from each stratum will be proportionate to the total number of elements in the respective strata †¢ Disproportionate: the subjects drawn from each stratum, the number of subjects from each stratum will now be altered, while keeping the sample size unchanged Cluster sampling: when several groups with intragroup heterogeneity and intergroup homogeneity are found, then a random sampling of the clusters or groups can ideally be done and information gathered from each of the members in the randomly chosen clusters ? Best: when heterogeneous group is to be studied at one time †¢ Single-stage and multistage cluster sampling: the division of of the population into convenient clusters, randomly choosing the required number of clusters as sample subjects, and investigating all the elements in each of the randomly chosen clusters Area sampling: constitutes geographical clusters, when the research pertains to populations within identifiable geographical areas such as coutries, city blocks, or particular boundaries within a locality ? Best: when the goal of the research is confined to a particular locality or area †¢ Double sampling: where initially a sample is used in a study to collect some preliminary information of interest, and later a subsample of this primary sample is used to examine the matter in more detail ? Best: provided added information at minimal additional expenditureNONPROBABILITY SAMPLING Nonprobability sampling: the elements in the population do not have any probabilities attached to their being chosen as sample subjects Convenience sampling: collection of information from members of the population who are conveniently available to provide it ? Best: to obtain some â€Å"quick† information to get a feel for the phenomenon or variables of interest Purposive sampling: confined a specific types of people who can provide the desired information, either because they are the only ones who have it, or conform to some criteria set by the researcher Judgment sampling: the choice of subjects who are most advantageously placed or in the best position to provide the information required ? Best: where the collect ion of â€Å"specialized informed inputs† on the topic area researched is vital, and the use of any other sampling design would not offer opportunities to obtain the specialized information †¢ Quota sampling: a form of proportionate stratified sampling, in which a predetermined proportion of people are sampled from different groups, but on a convenience basis ?Best: for the inclusion of all groups in the system researched ISSUES IN DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE 1. Precision ? How close our estimate is to the true population characteristic ? The narrower this interval, the greater the precision ? A function of the range of variability in the sampling distribution of the sample mean ? If we want to reduce the standard error given a particular standard deviation in the sample, we need to increase the sample size 2. Confidence ? How certain we are that our estimates will really hold true for the population ?Reflects the level of certainty with which we can state that our estimates of the population parameters will hold true ? A 95% confidence is the conventionally accepted level for most business research, most commonly expressed by denoting the significance level as p? 0. 05 ? At least 95 times out of 100, our estimate will reflect the true population characteristic The sample size, n, is a function of: 1. The variability in the population 2. Precision or accuracy needed 3. Confidence level desired 4. Type of sampling plan used 4 aspects while making decisions on the sample size: . How much precision is really needed in estimating the population characteristics of interest – what is the margin of allowable errors? 2. How much confidence is really needed – how much chance can we take of making errors in estimating the population parameters? 3. To what extent is there variability in the population on the characteristics investigated? 4. What is the cost-benefit analysis of increasing the sample size? Roscoe (1975); rules of thumb for determining sample size: 1. Sample sizes larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for most research 2.Where samples are to be broken into subsamples (ex:male/female, etc), a minimum sample size of 30 for each category is necessary 3. In multivariate research (including multiple regression analysis), the sample size should be several times (preferably 10 times or more) as large as the number of variables in the study 4. For simple experimental research with tight experimental controls (matched pairs, etc), successful research is possible with samples as small as 10 to 20 in size Kalo menurut gue sih, tahapan yang paling genting dan paling kritis ya di pembuatan BAB 3 alias pembuatan/penentuan metodologi ini.Ibaratnya bikin racikan obat, BAB 3 ini kayak tahap ketika lo lagi menentukan takaran dosis setiap elemen ramuan (ya populasi, ya sample, ya lainnya). Kalo dosisnya kurang, pasien ga sembuh, merana harus menderita terus-menerus. Kalo dosisnya berlebihan, pasien over dosis, meledak na nti! Dua-duanya sama-sama gawat. Kalo lo udah bikin BAB 3 lo dengan benar, selanjutnya gampang kok, tinggal ngambil data or sebar kuesioner, analisa. Tingal jalan†¦. ga perlu berlari-lari jatuh bangun kedebak-kedebuk. Well, udah bisa berpikir lebih santai lah†¦.. Tapi inget!!!BAB 3 juga berasal dari BAB 2! Model penelitian lo kan berasal dari landasan teori di BAB 2. Salah teori, bisa-bisa salah model. Salah model, berakibat salah operasionalisasi variabel. Salah operasionalisasi variabel, salah kuesioner. Salah kuesioner, salah data. Salah data, tebak sendiri†¦. Tapi, BAB 2 juga berasal dari BAB 1 lho†¦. Lo kan harus tau permasalahan lo dengan jelas tuh. Apa yang jadi latar belakang permasalahannya, apa hasil akhir yang lo mau. Semua itu yang menentukan teori-teori apa aja yang lo butuhin untuk dicantumin! Hahahaha†¦.Intinya sih, semua harus dikerjakan secara berurutan yah: BAB 1-2-3. Inget prinsip â€Å"rukun† yang gue jabarin di atas†¦. Pokokn ya selamat mengerjakan BAB1,2,3 bolak-balik deh. 1,2,3 – 3,2,1 – 2,1,3 – begitu aja terus! Yang penting: sabar†¦ semua harus dikerjakan dengan ketenangan akal dan pikiran. Nikmatin aja prosesnya((( goodluck yo! CHAPTER XII 4 steps in data analyis: 1. Getting data ready for analyis 2. Getting a feel for the data 3. Testing the goodness of data 4. Testing the hypotheses GETTING DATA READY FOR ANALYSIS Editing data: ? Data have to be edited Information that may have been noted down by the interviewer, observer, or researcher in a hurry must be clearly deciphered so that it may be coded systematically in its entirety ? Incoming mailed questionnaire data have to be checked for incompleteness and inconsistencies Handling blank responses: ? Not all respondents answer every item in the questionnaire ? Blank because the respondent did not understand the question, did not know the answer, was not willing to answer, or was simply indifferent to the need to respond to the entire questionnaire ?Way to handle a blank response: †¢ Assign the midpoint in the scale as the response to that particular item †¢ Allow the computer to ignore the blank responses when the analysis are done †¢ Assign to the item the mean value of the responses of all those who have responded to that particular item †¢ Give the item the mean of the responses of this particular respondent to all other questions measuring this variable †¢ Give the missing response a random number within the range for that scale Coding: ? Code the responses Coding sheet first to transcribe the data from the questionnaire and then key in the data Categorization ? Set up scheme for categorizing the variables such that the several items measuring a concept are all grouped together ? Responses to some of the negatively worded questions have also to be reversed so that all answers are in the same direction Entering data ? Questionnaire data are collected on scanner answer sheet s or tha raw data manually keyed into the computer DATA ANALYSIS 3 objectives in data analysis: 1.Getting a feel for the data 2. Testing the goodness of data 3. Testing the hypotheses developed for the research Feel for the data: †¢ Examination of the measure of central tendency, and how clustered or dispersed the variables are, gives a good idea of how well the questions were framed for tapping the concept †¢ The statistics give feel for the data: ? The frequency distributions for the demographic variables ? The mean, standard deviation, range, and variance on the other dependent and independent variables ?An intercorrelation matrix of the variables, irrespective of whether or not the hypotheses are directly related to these analysis Testing goodness of data: †¢ Reliability: ? Testing consistency and stability ? Consistency indicates how well the items measuring a concept hang together as a set ? Cronbach’s alpha is a reliability coefficient that indicates how well the items in a set are positively correlated to one another ? The closer Cronbach’s alpha is to 1, the higher the internal consistency reliability †¢ Validity: Factorial validity can be established by submitting the data for factor analysis ? The results of factor analysis (a multivariate technique) will confirm whether or not the theorized dimensions emerge Hypotheses testing: †¢ Test the hypotheses already developed for the study Analisis. Selamat merangkai kata. Selamat merangkai logika! Ayo fitut†¦. Yang rajin dong ah! Jangan menunda-nunda! PEKERJAAN TEKNIS SPECIMENT FORMAT FOR REFERENCING [APA FORMAT] Book by single author Leshin, C. B. (1997). Management on the World Wide Web.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Book by more than one author Cornett, M. , Wiley, B. J. , & Sankar, S. (1998) The pleasures of nurturing. London: McMunster Publishing. Book review Nichols, P. (1998). A new look at Home Services [Review of the book Providing Home Services t o the Elderly by Girch, S. ] Family Review Bulletin, 45, 12-13. Journal Article Jeanquart, S. , & Peluchette, J. (1997). Diversity in the workforce and management models. Journal of Social Work Studies, 43 (3), 72-85.