The Importance Of Refrigeration Technology History Essay

The Importance Of Refrigeration Technology History Essay The refrigeration technology is an important technology in that it slows down the growth of bacteria. In doing this, it lowers the risks of diseases. This is because bacteria exist all around us including in the foods that we eat. When the bacteria are supplied with enough nutrients and favorable climatic conditions, they grow rapidly and hence can cause illnesses. Refrigeration technology comes in hardy to stop the rapid multiplication of the bacteria and this is a benefit to the society in that its chances of falling ill from Bacteria illnesses are reduced (Bauer, 1998) Historical roots behind refrigeration. The very first artificial refrigeration known was the demonstration presented at the University of Glasgow by William Cullen in 1748. This discovery however was not use for any practical purpose. The first refrigerator was designed by Oliver Evans, an American inventor in 1748. But the first practical refrigerator was built in 1834 by Jacob Perkins. This refrigerator used vapor in a vapor compression cycle. John Gorrie an American physician built a refrigerator in 1844 based on Evans design. This refrigerator was built with the aim of making ice to cool the air for the yellow fever patients that he was treating. Carl Von Linden, a German engineer patented, in 1976 the process of liquefying gas but not the refrigerator (Burstall, 65). Gas liquefaction is the basic part of refrigeration technology. The first refrigerators were made of wood cabinet and a compressor that was cooled with water. Steel and porcelain cabinets emerged in 1920s to replace the wooden refrigerators which were le ss effective. The evolutions of the refrigerators continue to improve in the 50s and 60s and they became better to suit the needs of the customers. Automatic ice makers and automatic defrost were added in the refrigerator with the aim of making them user friendly and reduce the maintenance. The modern day refrigeration technology is aimed at making the refrigerators more environments friendly (About.Com) The refrigeration process has not stopped evolving. The early refrigerators of 1800 used toxic gas like ammonia, methyl chloride and sulfur dioxide as the refrigerant. These were used up to 1929. In the 1920s, there are many fatal accidents which occurred. This was caused by the leaking of methyl chloride from the refrigerators. It was after this that 3 American corporations embarked on intensive research to come up with a less dangerous method of refrigeration. Their efforts led to the use of Freon which became a standard for all refrigerators. Freon was changed in 1996 and it was replaced with HFC 134a. This was done so as to comply with The Regulatory Clean Air Act. The replacement was done because HFC 134a was less injurious to the environment and the Ozone as compared to Freon. The effectiveness of HFC 134a was just the same as Freon and the users of refrigerators did not notice any difference. The table below shows the milestones achieved in the refrigeration technology. Milestones: BC 1000 The Chinese cut and stored ice 500  Ã‚   Egyptians and Indians made ice on cold nights by setting water out in earthenware pots AD 1700 In England, servants collected ice in the winter and put it into icehouses for use in the summer 1720 Dr. William Cullen, a Scotsman, studied the evaporation of liquids in a vacuum 1805 Oliver Evans of Pennsylvania, compressed ether machine, the machine is never built 1820 Michael Faraday, a Londoner, liquefied ammonia to cause cooling 1834 Jacob Perkins, ether vapor compression cycle, Ice Making Machine 1844 James Harrison of Australia invents compressed ether machine 1850 Edmond Carre of France, invents an absorption process machine 1852 William Thomson James Prescott cooling increases in proportion to the pressure difference 1855 Dr. John Gorrie builds compression refrigeration system based on Faradays experiments. 1856 James Harrison commissioned by a brewery to build a machine that cooled beer. 1859 Ferdinand Carre of France, developed the first ammonia/water refrigeration machine 1871 Carl von Linde of Germany published an essay on improved refrigeration techniques 1873 Carl von Linde first practical and portable compressor refrigeration machine was built in Munich 1874 Raoul Pictet of Switzerland, a compressor system using sulfur dioxide instead of ammonia 1876 Carl von Linde, early models he used methyl ether, but changed to an ammonia cycle 1878 von Linde starts Lindes Eismaschinen AG, (Society for Lindes Ice Machines), now Linde AG 1881 Edmund J. Copeland and Arnold H. Gross start Leonard Refrigerator Company 1894 Linde developed a new method (Linde technique) for the liquefaction of large quantities of air. 1894 Linde AG installs refrigerator at the Guinness brewery in Dublin, Ireland 1895 Carl von Linde produced large amounts of liquid air using the Thomson-Joule effect 1901 Patent # 665,814 issued January 10, for a Refridgeator (Ice Box) invented by Henry Trost. 1911 General Electric company unveiled a refrigerator invented by a French monk. Abbe Audiffren 1913 Fred W. Wolf Jr.of the Domelre Company (DOMestic Electric Refrigerator) 1914 Leonard Refrigerator Company renamed Electro-Automatic Refrigerating Company 1915 Alfred Mellowes starts Guardian Frigerato to build first self-container refrigerator for home use 1916 Servel models compressors were generally driven by motors located in the basement 1916 Henry Joy of Packard Motor Car Co. purchased the Fred W. Wolf refrigerator rights 1918 Guardian Frigerato purchased by General Motors and renamed Frigidaire 1918 Electro-Automatic Refrigerating Company renamed Kelvinator 1920 there were some 200 different refrigerator models on the market. 1922 Baltzar von Platen and Carl Munters introduce absorption process refrigerator 1923 Kelvinator held 80 percent of the market for electric refrigerators 1923 AB Arctic.begins production of refrigerators based on Platen-Munters invention 1925 Electrolux purchases AB Arctic and launches the D-fridge on the world market 1925 Steel and porcelain cabinets began appearing in the mid-20s 1927 first refrigerator to see widespread use was the General Electric Monitor-Top refrigerator. 1930 first built-in refrigerator is launched by Electrolux 1931 Dupont produced commercial quantities of R-12, trademarked as Freon 1931 the first air-cooled refrigerator introduced by Electrolux 1932 Gibson, then owned by Frank Gibson, manufactured its own line of refrigerators. 1934 an innovation, the Shelvador refrigerator, was introduced by the Crosley Radio Corporation 1936 Albert Henne synthesizes refrigerant R-134a 1937 more than 2 million Americans owned refrigerators. 1939 refrigerator with one section for frozen food and a second for chilled food, introduced by G. E. 1946 Mass production of modern refrigerators didnt get started until after World War II. 1947 GE two-door refrigerator-freezer combination 1955 80% of American homes now have refrigerators 2005 A domestic refrigerator is present in 99.5% of American homes   Table 1. Source: The Great Idea Finder Is refrigeration an old or a new technology. Refrigeration is an old technology that started a long time ago. Refrigeration concept can be said to originate from the prehistoric times. During this period, man found that the meat he had hunted lasted longer when stored in the cool areas of the cave or when packed in snow. The early man found that when he stored his game in cold temperatures, it lasted for long. He therefore hunted excess game which he kept in cold temperatures and he would eat this meat when the food was in short supply. As the early man progressed, he started using ice which he harvested in winter to use in summer. Ice was also harvested from lakes and rivers to be used for the purpose of refrigeration. Adding chemicals like sodium and potassium nitrate to water so as to lower its temperatures was the next stage in the history of refrigeration. It is recorded that this method was used to cool wine in 1550. The use of mechanical refrigeration started in the last quarter of the 19th century. This evolution was a long slow process (Trevor, 1978) Has refrigeration led to any type of social change? The refrigeration technology can be said to have a great impact to women in particular. This is because women are viewed as the domestic worker (Cowan, 137-138). Though this mentality has changed in the modern world, there is still the thought that the domestic world belongs to women. The refrigerators can be seen to symbolize the freedom of house wives. They have saved women from preserving foods in the old fashioned ways of salting, smoking or dehydrating. The air conditioning has contributed immensely to the development of the hot and humid areas both socially and economically. This has been achieved through creation of habitable environments with desired temperatures and humidity levels in office buildings and private homes (Barbara, 2003) Benefits of refrigeration to the society Refrigeration has changed the lifestyles of the society in various ways. One can buy food for a whole week without fear of it getting spoiled after refrigeration. Cooked food can also be stored for long without getting spoilt. Salting of food as a method of preservation is long forgotten. The food preserved using this method did not even last for a long time. One can also get a cold drink during the hottest summer and this seemed like a dream before refrigeration wad invented. Fruits, vegetables and even flowers can be kept fresh for a long period of time with refrigeration. The modern life is in the fast lane. This has called for most people to be working for long hours or working two jobs. In homes both partners may be busy for up to a whole week and hence no time for everyday cooking. With refrigeration, they can cook as much food as possible when they are free and storing it in refrigerators and they can eat it throughout the week. This saves them much time which could have been wasted ion cooking after work. With refrigeration, the temperature of the food is lowered and thus the food can be kept for long to be used later without getting spoiled (Shephard, 29) Refrigeration is also widely used for the purposes of air conditioning in homes, public buildings and restaurants. It is also used for refrigeration of foodstuffs in restaurants and also in large storage warehouses. Refrigerators have become very common in the United States. Most American homes started using refrigerators a long time ago. More than 80 % of the rural American and more than 90% of urban American homes used owned a refrigerator by the year 1950 (Historychannel.com) Refrigeration is also used commercially and in manufacturing industries. It is used to liquefy gases including oxygen, nitrogen, propane, and methane. It is used to compress and condense water vapor in compressed air purification. This process is aimed at reducing the moisture content of compressed air. In industries like petrochemical, refineries and chemical plants, refrigeration is important as it is used for the maintenance of certain chemical processes and reactions at low temperatures. An example is in the production of high octane gasoline component where the alkylations of butanes and butane is done at low temperatures (Noor, 2009) Refrigeration is therefore a vital technology in many sectors of the economy like the dairy industry, the meat industry, fish and pork industry and also in the fruits and vegetables sector. In the non food sectors, refrigeration is used in school laboratories to store chemicals, samples and cultures. It is also the technology that is used to preserver corpses in morgues. Detrimental effects of refrigeration to the society. The refrigerant used in refrigerators has a negative effect on the environment. Though the use of CFC has been banned, some manufactures may sell the old stocks of refrigerators which use CFC. These are detrimental to the ozone layer. The HFCs being used on modern refrigerators are strong green house gas emitters. Though they do not harm the ozone, they destroy the environment that we live-in. Refrigeration contributes to the global warming. Though HFCs were seen as the solution to refrigeration, it has a very high potential of global warming. This contribution is due to direct emissions of the refrigerant gases. Most of these emissions are due to leakage of the refrigerant into the environment either due to poor maintenance and containment. Freon was seen as been safer to the consumer though it had negative impacts on the environment. Clean Air Act was passed in 1990 and it restricted use of CFCs. Many industries had no other choice than to be forced to phase out CFCs in their produ cts (Gopalnarayanan, 19) Refrigeration as a symbol of growth. Refrigeration has allowed many families and industries to keep food fresh for long periods of time. It is a symbol of growth in that most families are small and they occupy a small piece of land and hence there is no space for keeping livestock and growing different varieties of fruits and vegetables. Also most modern families live in towns and cities where there are no gardens for growing fruits and vegetables or keeping animals. This does not therefore mean that because these families are limited by these factors, they cannot enjoy a varied and balanced diet. Supermarkets have stocked all types of me4at, eggs, vegetables and eggs in their refrigerated shelves. These customers come and buy the same and stock it in their refrigerators. The fish, poultry, dairy products and vegetables can be kept in the same space of the refrigerator within the kitchen. Refrigeration is an important symbol of growth and societal progress in that the society can enjoy a variety of salads, fruits and vegetables all year long without having and tilling their own garden. The society can also enjoy dairy products without having their own dairy animals, meat products without owning beef cattle, egg products without rearing their own poultry and all kinds of fish without having a fish pond all year round. Also other types of foods from far off countries are madder available to the society. These food products are shipped or delivered by air under refrigeration. Refrigeration allows purchase of goods in large scale and in bulk. With regard to economies of scale, this saves on money. It has become possible to enjoy ice cream which may have been produced from abroad unlike in the past where ice cream was eaten on the spot at the place of manufacture. Through refrigeration world trade has been opened up and refrigerated goods from one country can be easily market in another without the fear of spoilage. Refrigeration technology has acted as a source of employment to many people. The direct employees include the refrigeration experts, technicians; mechanics and installers. These are mainly people employed by air conditioning, plumbing and heating contractors and companies. Indirect employment involve people in other sectors e.g. in shops that sell the refrigeration equipments, dairy farmers, fishermen and fruits and vegetable farmers. How government institutions helped shape refrigeration. Government as a regulator- the government through the Environmental Protection Agency has set standards for monitoring and regulating refrigerant leaks. There are other regulations and strict standards that have been set by the government regarding green house emissions from the refrigerants. The government has identified CFCs, HCFCs, and PFCs as ozone depleting gases (ODS) and also global warming gases and has therefore prohibited their use as refrigerants. These are the gases commonly used for HVAC and in AC units. Many US states have increased the demand for a detailed refrigerant reporting requirement (Stouffer, 1998). Government as consumer- many government buildings, both central and federal government, is installed with air conditioners, refrigerators and other heating and cooling systems that use the refrigeration technology. Also government hospitals and other governmental organizations are installed with refrigeration systems. This is evident that the government is a major consumer of the refrigeration technology. Is refrigeration an example of deterministic technology or socially constructed technology. In my opinion, refrigeration is a socially constructed technology. Refrigeration does not determine the human actions but rather it is the human actions that have shaped refrigeration. The need for fresh products has resulted into the invention of the refrigeration technology. Human beings actions are such that they are very busy either in work places or in school and hence have no time to cook fresh foods every day. This has led to the development of the refrigeration technology. With its development, the human beings are now able to cook more food whenever they are free which they can refrigerate and eat them for a long period of time. Abstract Refrigeration can be said to the process of heat removal from substances. It is done with the aim of lowering the temperature of the substance and maintaining that low temperature. Refrigeration in food is done to reduce the risk of bacteria survival. Bacteria are responsible for most of the illnesses. The technology of refrigeration can be said to have started a long time ago. Its evolution is still continuing as we seek to find the best refrigerant that can be safe to us and to our environment. Refrigeration has been associated with a lot of benefits in our homes and in the society at large. Many homes in the United States are now equipped with a refrigerator. Important words used :refrigerator, fridge, fridgerator, refrigeration, Carl Linde, Carl von Linde, William Cullen, Oliver Evans, Fred Wolf, Linde, William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, James Prescott Joule,   invention, history, inventor of, history of, who invented, invention of, CFC, HCFC, ODS,AC, HAVC.

A Pair of Tickets †Short Analysis Essay

Who am I? Have you ever sat and thought about the contributing elements that make you the person you are? In â€Å"A Pair of Tickets,† in hopes of finding her true self, June May struggles to identify who she is. Amy Tan is an author who uses the element of character development to bring out the theme of self-awareness and identity in this story, mainly focusing on the main character having the dual identity of being Chinese American. While June May discovers her ancestral home, she also finds a part of herself. June May’s mother was an immigrant from China. At the beginning of the story, June tells of how her mother tries to convey their family’s history and legacy to her. June, who is fully americanized and almost completely ignorant of their heritage, tells of how at the age of fifteen she believes she is no more Chinese than her Caucasian friends even though her mother was persistent in convincing her that being Chinese could not be helped. Her pass port reveals her American name which is June May but she chooses to introduce herself as Jing-Mei, which is her Chinese name. This incident is the start of her accepting her Chinese heritage. She has many misconceptions throughout the story; most about what is to be Chinese and the culture of China and the people that reside there. One example being she did not think that â€Å"communist China† would have such luxurious hotels, which is an example of American stereotyping. She compares her height to those of the people she is surrounded by when she gets off the train to head to customs, saying that she was much taller. She was expecting a traditional Chinese meal but her family opted for the hamburgers, fries, and apple pie instead. She was shocked when her younger cousin Lili posed as if she was a supermodel while taking a picture. June started to take in how American culture had shaped her way of thinking and that she was wrong in believing her family would be more different from her. Often looking on the experiences of your families past is sometimes needed to discover who we are as a person. Going to China helps June understand how she is Chinese. As she learns more about her family and her mother’s life and the sacrifices she had to make, June’s mindset changes more. She compares being Chinese to transforming into a werewolf as though it was something she would have to become. By the end of the story, she realizes that the part of her that is Chinese is her family, and it is in her blood. Becoming Chinese was not realistic and her mother was right. She was already Chinese, and it could not be helped. June May’s journey was never about becoming Chinese, or understanding the culture, it was about understanding who she is and knowing that there are parts of herself that she had no control of their existence. Finding her ethnic and cultural roots while in China allowed June May Woo to discover Jing-Mei Woo.

Motif of Eyes in the Great Gatsby

Taylor Hultquist Mr. Sudak English 11 18 March 2013 The motif of eyes in The Great Gatsby Eyes are the gateway to the soul, or so the old saying goes. People’s eyes can convey their feelings – their anger, excitement, or worry. Eyes can also convey subconscious emotions, revealing hidden depths that might not otherwise be apparent. In The Great Gatsby we are introduced to many characters whose eyes effectively reveal their personalities. The author explores the symbolism of eyes as Nick, the narrator, observes the lives and interactions of his friends on Long Island.One of his acquaintances, Daisy, is a flighty girl, married to a retired football player. Her husband, Tom Buchanan, embodies the classic tough-white-male aura. These two and the majority of other east coast characters are eventually seen as immoral, and the author’s portrayal of their eyes foreshadowed this development. Through a complex analysis of The Great Gatsby, one can argue that eyes are used as a motif that symbolizes the â€Å"loss of virtue in America. † Through the eyes of our narrator, James Gatsby and Tom Buchanan represent the east coast American ideal.Nick considers their wealth, social status, and confidence to be the level that he strives to attain. What he does not first understand is that these qualities ultimately lead to each man’s demise. Although Tom and Gatsby had many differences, they shared the common flaw of lost virtue. When Nick reconnects with his old friends, his first impression of Tom Buchanan is that â€Å"two shining, arrogant eyes had established dominance over [Tom’s] face† (9). In this passage we witness Fitzgerald’s reference to eyes and his characterization of them with the adjective of â€Å"arrogant. These overwhelming eyes are the first feature Nick notes, and he claims even they communicate Tom’s stuck-up attitude. Tom’s eyes make him appear to be â€Å"always leaning aggressively fo rward† (9) – clearly a negative personality trait. Virtue is defined as a quality considered morally good or desirable in a person. Referencing the quote above, one can make the inference that Tom’s character falls outside of this definition. This is a trend, which carries throughout this novel continuously with all of Nick’s ‘east coast friends. During the same evening Nick notes that Daisy’s eyes â€Å"flashed around her in a defiant way, rather like Tom’s, and she laughed with thrilling scorn† (20). This quote is juxtaposed to an unflattering insight into Daisy’s character, as Nick observes in the insincerity of her comments about sophistication and the falsity of his evening spent with her and Tom. Yet despite all this, he still acknowledges that Daisy’s character always seems to be promising â€Å"gay and exciting things† have already happened and are still yet to come.Daisy represents the wild side of h igh end New York, but we see that this lifestyle is not quite as superior as everyone believes it to be. In fact, Daisy seems to view it in quite a bittersweet manner and cries that it is not entirely satisfying. What Fitzgerald is displaying through the two figures of Tom and Daisy is that while they want for nothing, they long for everything. In order to satisfy their desires they turn to money and society, and still find these lacking. Nick moved from Midwestern America to the East Coast.Cities have historically been viewed as centers of depravity, while rural areas represent simplicity and thus a kind of innocence. Every time the characters travel between the Eggs and the city, they pass beneath a billboard containing the infamous eyes of Dr. TJ Eckleburg. His eyes are â€Å"blue and gigantic† with â€Å"retinas one yard high,† all rising â€Å"above the grey land and spasms of bleak dust† below (26). These eyes are witness as the characters venture to the c ity – Tom for his affair, Daisy looking for ‘fun,’ even Gatsby to meet the man who fixed the World Series.These fraudulent actions reveal the corrupted natures of characters, and in effect the corruption of people at large. The billboard’s eyes are equated to the eyes of God, eyes witnessing everything everywhere. Just as one would feel shame knowing God was watching their deceitful actions, one should feel shame being scrutinized by TJ Eckleburg. The commercialism of the billboard is additionally reflective of the increasing commercialism of America, and of its citizens growing obsession with material wealth. Tom and Daisy’s lifestyle is the epitome of this, as they solely pursue money and fun and have no interest in their moral states of being.Yet just as this couple’s lives lack true joy – as displayed through Fitzgerald’s apt descriptions of their eyes – so will anyone’s who obsessively pursues the ‘Ameri can Dream’ of endless wealth. Works Cited Dictionary. com. â€Å"Virtue. † Dictionary. com. Dictionary. com, n. d. Web. 18 Mar. 2013. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. Australia: Scribner, 1925. E-book. â€Å"The Great Gatsby; Symbols and Motifs. † Eyes of T. J. Eckleburg. Blog Spot, May 2011. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. â€Å"Benjamin Franklin Quotes. † LibertyQuotes. Liberty-Tree. ca, 2005. Web. 20 Mar. 2013.

The Criminal Justice System Is Not Perfect - 1331 Words

The criminal justice system is not perfect, although it has its rewards when justice is being served to either a victim or a suspect. A part of the criminal justice policy I will analyze sentencing for psychopaths and juveniles. Should psychopaths plead insanity for their irresponsible actions. Should the judicial system keep juveniles in prison or let them out due to their age? Are juveniles irresponsible in a result of that they know not what they do? According to the 8th amendment, it states, Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. A lot of states seem to have their way of doing things in finding ways how they can impose cruel and unusual punishment. Psychopaths are among us, and they’re growing vastly in many communities. Should we accuse mental cases of their unsafe activities? A significant part of the late open deliberation over this inquiry has concerned the limits of mental cases, and specifically, whether they are fit for learning. A few scholars have contended that mental cases deficiencies in sympathy cause them to experience issues with the securing of good ideas. These challenges in this way involve that they need good obligation about their activities. An article I read â€Å"The campaign for the fear sentencing of youth†, states that more than 25 percent of people is serving life without parole. After being sentenced as children were convicted of felony murder or accompliceShow MoreRelatedThe Criminal Justice System Is Not A Perfect System Essay2359 Words   |  10 Pages â€Å"Innocent until proven guilty.† The entire basis of the criminal justice system is to prosecute those who commit crimes and to validate every piece of evidence before prosecuting a suspect. 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Industrial/Organizational Psychology Paper - 794 Words

Are you fit to be an Industrial or Organizational Psychologist? Most would say yes in a heartbeat Industrial psychologists associate themselves with people in the workplace. Industrial psychology is often called personnel psychology, which is directly related to the field also known as organizational psychology. Usually industrial psychologists evaluate the differences between individual workers and also individual jobs. Organizational psychologists normally seek the understanding of how workers function in an organization and also the role of the organization in society. What is Organizational/ Industrial Psychology Organizational/ Industrial Psychology is the study of activities in work environment. Industrial and Organizational†¦show more content†¦The Evolution of Organizational/ Industrial Psychology I/O psychology is a fairly new field in the world of psychology. Industrial Psychology didn’t become fully functional until the late 1920s. Prior to the late 1920s, several individuals had started to improve the workplace. Differential psychology, which became known during WW I, was the root of improving the workplace. It paid close attention in on how people are different but was not very successful in helping with ones job. The second idea was experimental psychology. This branch attempted to treat everyone as the same and tried to define laws in how people are similar. It also failed. . The third idea was scientific management (Newman, B. M. (2006). This was the idea that there is only one best way to perform a job. It was based on the fact that money is an incentive and left out the idea of job satisfaction. The last factor that helped I/O psychology become famous was the human relations movement. This particular movement wanted to keep people happy through motivation along with job satisfaction (Passer, Smith 2005). It also led to the Hawthorne Studies, which was the true start of I/O psychology. 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Analysis Of Frank And Juliette s Music - 1836 Words

Frank and Juliette, both discussed their own spiritual experiences, or version of as being related to music. This presents the idea that music,in some ways, could be a secular alternative to religious practices and understandings or simply a way of experiencing spirituality in secular spheres. Frank:†¦ listen to songs where I’ve felt emotions and feelings that run past the specific context of the song †¦ this applies to more of my life than it should†¦ a lot of people have had that with music†¦ Ideas of transcendence and deep personal connection are apparent here. Juliette: Concert, not a gig †¦ a concert where you’ve been a fan for ages. There’s all these people, you’re all in the same vibe†¦ this person that you like, idolised. . . Florence and The Machine, her music is very spiritual†¦ it’s really deep...and relatable. . . . I don’t know if I’d call myself spiritual because I go to concerts and feel deep about it. . . . I guess [I listen to music] pretty much every day . . . If you compare it to religion, is like praying every day and then going to Church. So like, listening to music every day and then going to the concert. Initiation into a subculture, reflects initiation into religious rituals, thus, similar themes of spirituality emerge. Participants can accept or reject concepts of spirituality upon attending a subcultural gig. This is the space where individuals are most likely to engage with meaning in the music, captivate feelings and create memories and connectionsShow MoreRelatedMetz Film Language a Semiotics of the Cinema PDF100902 Words   |  316 PagesOxford University Press, 1974. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-226-52130-3 (pbk.) 1. Motion pictures—Semiotics. 2. Motion pictures— Philosophy. I. Title. PN1995.M4513 1991 791.43 014—dc20 90-46965 C1P The French edition of Christian Metz s Essais sur la signification au cinema, volume 1, was published by Editions Klincksieck in 1971,  © Editions Klincksieck, 1968. ÃŽËœThe paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence

Extension of Transformational–Transactional Leadership Theory

Question: Discuss about the Extension of TransformationalTransactional Leadership Theory? Answer: The theories of leadership have been long a subject of interest in the history of humankind. However, in the recent times, many leadership theories have emerged formally. Earlier theories of leadership were based on the qualities of the followers and leaders that distinguished them whereas the recent theories emphasize on the prospective of skill levels and situational factors (Miner 2015). In case of vignette 1, the Romanian general manager was taking notes on his tablet computer. This was an unusual situation for him and he is not known to do the same. However, when the fire alarm went off, the managers remained silent. Although they were great leaders of the global company, yet they forgot their responsibility of giving out orders that were probably because of the presence of the big boss from Munich. They kept low of their normal behavior of giving orders but they failed to do the same. This in turn states that there is variability in their leadership qualities (Kenney 2012). This trait is found in the Contingency leadership theory and it focuses on the variable environment, which determines the type of leadership that is to be followed according to the situation. No particular leadership style is followed throughout the work tenure but it changes with the situations. This is due to the reason that the general manager from Romania believes that success is dependent on a list of variables like the situation aspects, leadership styles and qualities of the followers (Nohria and Khurana 2013). In case of vignette 2, Michael is an excellent analyst and he has performed well over the years. He is an extremely responsible person regarding his tasks and does not rely on new comers and inexperienced employees regarding critical jobs. He strongly believes that if he does not get involved personally in all the tasks, the quality of work might suffer. However, a feedback from his followers was not very satisfactory. Although he is an outstanding analyst, he is not that capable as a leader. He does not explain the task promptly to his team members and he distributes the work unevenly. Moreover, his team members feel that he was better as an analyst. This is a trait of the behavioral theory of leadership. According to this theory, great leaders are not born rather they are made. The theory focuses on the fact that the actions of the leaders have to be taken into account and not his internal states or mental qualities (Chemers 2014). Although Michael is a great analyst, but he has to learn the qualities of a great leader by observation and teaching for overcoming his shortfalls as a leader. In case of vignette 3, the husband explains his wife about his day in office. He had a tough day in office while listening to the advice of the trainers regarding the topic of optimization of supplier relationships. Everyone contributed and shared their opinions and ideas about the potential supplier that they were all discussing. Although the husband was aware of the fact that his boss hates the company, yet he continued the discussion and encouraged others to forward their opinions. This style of leadership accords to the participative theory of leadership, where the leader considers others inputs. They encourage the contribution and participation of the members of the group and help them to feel more committed and relevant in the process of decision-making. In this theory of leadership, the people become more committed towards their actions and their inclusion in the process of decision-making makes them feel more collaborative towards the goal of the discussion (Lam, Huang and Ch an 2015). In case of vignette 6, Margarita strongly believes that the managers should be evaluated by their ability to develop and grow their subordinates. She groomed and developed her direct report Nicholas and he later became a successful employee. During the process, she spent hours with him with his presentations and reports prepared by him and exploring ways for correcting his mistakes. This style of leadership relates to the relationship theory of leadership, also known as transformational theory. This theory emphasizes upon the relationships formed between the followers and the leaders. They inspire and motivate people by helping them to see the higher good and importance of their role (Popper and Mayseless 2013). The leaders stress on the individual performances with the additional duty of fulfilling their potential. These leaders possess high moral and ethical standards. Although Margarita was a good leader with Nicholas, she was not that satisfied with Eugene that apparently raged h er. Vignette 2 Michael has been widely regarded as an excellent analyst. Although he is very successful as an analyst, he gets a setback as a leader due to the issues of uneven workload distribution and improper explanation of tasks. The assessment comments state that he should continue as an analyst as he loves his work the most. This failure of Michael can be justified from the fact behavioral theory of leadership has to be followed by him for enhancing their effectiveness as a leader (Derue et al. 2011). Since Michael has been promoted to a manager because of his outstanding abilities, now he has to learn the leadership skills by observation and teachings to become a good leader. Great leaders are often made and they are seldom born (Gavetti 2012). Behavioral theory will help Michael to become a great leader. Successful leadership can be developed by learnable behavior and is definable. The leaders here observe success as describable action and so it makes it easy for them to act in a similar fashion. They learn to assess the actions of the other leaders and their success stories. The behaviors that contributed towards failure also help them to shape up as great leaders. An action plan has to be developed for Michael to help him become an effective leader. Since the beginning of his employment, Michael has been an outstanding analyst. However, he prefers to do the work of the absent employees rather than trusting on his team members. Moreover, he double-checks every task before passing them on to the management. Therefore, he has to build a relationship of faith and trust with his employees to become a better leader without which, he will never be able to build a relationship of faith and trust that is very essential for a successful leader (Goetsch and Davis 2014). He needs to spend time with his team members and make them understand the tasks promptly by taking out some time from his busy schedule. Better distribution of tasks reduces the workload and every team member gets engaged. This has to be a prime objective of Michael to reduce dissatisfaction and encourage deeper relationships and trusts for inspiring them to have faith in him. Reading boo ks on leaderships, being trained and observing other leaders will also help him to develop his leadership skills. Vignette 4 The husband is a good leader and has shown good leadership skills during his discussion with the trainers. He was advised in the training session that the mangers need to apply a variety of styles depending on the situation and the followers. Based on this, he tried to apply his training on his discussion with the trainers. During the discussion, he applied the participative theory of leadership (Buengeler, Homan and Voelpel 2016). However, that did not work as everyone participated in the discussion and forwarded their views but they were not aware of the fact that it was of no good use. The division senior vice president hated the company and would have never allowed doing business with the potential supplier. In spite of knowing this fact, the husband applied the participative theory of leadership and allowed to continue the discussion, which he later repented to his wife, as he was late for dinner. The heads of production and purchasing enthusiastically expressed their interest regarding the new supplier, but the HR manager did not show any interest. This suggests that perhaps he was expecting his views and wanted him to join the discussion as well. However, his theory of leadership did not come out to be fruitful. The action plan for the husband to enhance his leadership skills shall include the change of his leadership theory from participative to situational theory. This theory proposes that the suitable action course has to be chosen by the leaders depending upon the variable situation. Different leadership styles have to be implemented for different decision-making situations (Dinh et al. 2014). An authoritarian style can be most appropriate when the leader is the most experienced and knowledgeable among the group members while democratic style can be the most effective one if the group members are found to be skilled experts. The situational leadership theory was advised to the husband during the training session. Since the husband is, the most experienced and knowledgeable group member on the discussion panel as he had prior experiences of working with his boss, his chosen action plan should be authoritarian leadership style for the situational leadership theory (Van Wart 2014). For avoi ding unnecessary waste of time by discussing over issues that have no results, this can be the action plan of choice by becoming authoritative. Vignette 3 According to the conversation between A and B in London, the conflicts in Prague were not an ordinary and easy one. In accordance with the issue, manager A suggested to fire both the commercial and production managers as he supposed that they were not competent enough to resolve their own issues. This was not a case of abusing his power, but he demonstrated management leadership theory. Management theory is also called as transactional theory and emphasizes on the group performance, organization and supervision. This leadership theory is based on the system of punishments and rewards (Avolio and Yammarino 2013). In its application in business, the employees are rewarded when they are successful and they are punished and reprimanded when they fail. Manager A had the belief that employees perform best only when they work under pressure and threats. This is also a perspective of the management theory of leadership, which states that both punishments and rewards motivate the employees an d they perform best only when they are commanded over in a clear and definite manner. Transactional leadership is based on directing and motivating the employees for satisfying their self-interest. They obtain this power from the responsibility and formal authority in the organization and they regard that the prime objective of the employees should be obeying the instructions of the managers. This is what manager A expects from both the managers at Prague. However, the biggest disadvantage of this type of leadership theory is that it cannot be observed as an ethical theory as manager A has no respect for the ethical values and beliefs or rights and dignity of his employees (Antonakis and House 2014). His leadership style will never allow him to set good standards and expectations to maximize the productivity and efficiency of the organization. The employees are also not encouraged to find innovative solutions or exhibit their creativity. Vignette 4 The division senior vice president of the company hates the potential new supplier because of an issue that goes back in history. This is a feeling of vengeance and has nothing to do with the leadership theories. In other words, the senior VP is abusing his power by not allowing the new supplier to enter the business when everyone else is very excited. An old incident drives him crazy by the name of the company simply states that he has a grudge for this company because of which, he will never allow to use the supplier under any circumstances. This is not an ethical leadership and the husband in the vignette realized that he would not value the opinions of the trainers and managers regarding their choice. This misidentification of values may lead to mistrust in the organization (Blundell 2015). The managers and trainers were not aware of the fact that the senior VP hated the company, so they carried on the discussion. After knowing the fact, their enthusiasm died and they left immedi ately. This suggests that the values and intentions of the VP are not clear to all the employees and he is abusing his powers regarding the selection of the supplier (Mohr 2013). For the sake of organizational growth, the senior VP should take into account the opinion of others. References Antonakis, J. and House, R.J., 2014. Instrumental leadership: Measurement and extension of transformationaltransactional leadership theory.The Leadership Quarterly,25(4), pp.746-771. Avolio, B.J. and Yammarino, F.J. eds., 2013.Transformational and charismatic leadership: The road ahead. Emerald Group Publishing. Blundell, A., 2015. The seven essentials of leadership development.development. Buengeler, C., Homan, A.C. and Voelpel, S.C., 2016. The challenge of being a young manager: The effects of contingent reward and participative leadership on teamà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ level turnover depend on leader age.Journal of Organizational Behavior. Chemers, M., 2014.An integrative theory of leadership. Psychology Press. DERUE, D.S., NAHRGANG, J.D., WELLMAN, N. HUMPHREY, S.E. 2011, "TRAIT AND BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP: AN INTEGRATION AND METAà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ANALYTIC TEST OF THEIR RELATIVE VALIDITY",Personnel Psychology,vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 7-52. Dinh, J.E., Lord, R.G., Gardner, W.L., Meuser, J.D., Liden, R.C. and Hu, J., 2014. Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: Current theoretical trends and changing perspectives.The Leadership Quarterly,25(1), pp.36-62. Gavetti, G., 2012. PERSPECTIVEToward a behavioral theory of strategy.Organization Science,23(1), pp.267-285. Goetsch, D.L. and Davis, S.B., 2014.Quality management for organizational excellence. pearson. Kenney, M.T. 2012, "Evolutionary leadership theory",Journal of Leadership Studies,vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 85-89. Lam, C.K., Huang, X. and Chan, S.C., 2015. The threshold effect of participative leadership and the role of leader information sharing.Academy of Management Journal,58(3), pp.836-855. Miner, J.B., 2015.Organizational behavior 1: Essential theories of motivation and leadership. Routledge. Mohr, J.M. 2013, "Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Harmful Leadership with a Moral Faade",Journal of Leadership Studies,vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 18-32. Nohria, N. and Khurana, R. eds., 2013.Handbook of leadership theory and practice: An HBS centennial colloquium on advancing leadership. Harvard Business Press. Popper, M. and Mayseless, O., 2013. Addendum: Additional Insights Derived from Associating Attachment theory with Leadership.Transformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead,5, pp.265-268. Van Wart, M., 2014.Dynamics of leadership in public service: Theory and practice. Routledge.